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FOOD   PRODUCTS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NBW  YORK   ■    BOSTON  •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


FOOD    PRODUCTS 


HENRY   C.   SHERMAN,    Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF   FOOD   CHEMISTRY 
COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1917 

AU  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1914, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published  October,  1914.  Reprinted 
January,  July,  September,  1915;  February,  August,  1916;  March, 
August,  1917. 


Norfoooti  iPrees 

•J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  <k  Smith  Oo. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


w 


PREFACE 

Both  food  legislation  and  the  scientific  investigation  of  certain 
important  aspects  of  the  composition  and  value  of  food  have 
undergone  an  exceptionally  rapid  development  during  the  past 
few  years.  In  this  volume  it  is  sought  to  incorporate  in  the 
subject  matter  of  a  general  study  of  foods  the  results  of  these 
recent  advances  which  heretofore  have  been  too  widely  scattered 
to  be  readily  accessible. 

The  general  plan  is  to  devote  a  chapter  to  each  important 
type  of  food  covering  (i)  an  accomit  of  its  production  and 
preparation  for  market  with  such  brief  statistical  data  as  will 
indicate  the  relative  economic  importance  of  the  industry, 
(2)  the  proximate  composition  and  general  food  value,  (3)  ques- 
tions of  sanitation,  inspection,  and  standards  of  purity,  (4)  spe- 
cial characteristics  of  composition,  digestibihty,  nutritive  value 
and  place  in  the  diet.  The  study  of  milk  affords  opportunity 
for  the  correlation  of  all  these  aspects  and  may  therefore  serve 
to  set  standards  for  the  study  of  the  other  types  of  food.  Since 
a  detailed  discussion  of  each  aspect  under  every  article  of  food 
would  have  made  the  present  volume  too  large  for  its  main 
purpose,  it  has  seemed  best  to  distribute  the  emphasis  differently 
in  different  chapters  according  to  the  nature  of  the  food  and 
the  state  of  development  of  the  industry.  Lists  of  references 
appended  to  the  different  chapters  will  facilitate  the  extension 
of  the  work  covered  by  the  text  along  either  chemical,  economic, 
sanitary,  or  nutritional  lines. 

To  add  to  the  usefulness  of  the  book  for  reference  the  tables 
of  composition  of  foods  have  been  made  as  complete  as  is  prac- 


vi  PREFACE 

ticable  and  a  considerable  compilation  of  data  relating  to  food 
legislation  and  inspection  has  also  been  included  in  the  appendix. 
The  author  would  here  make  grateful  acknowledgment  to 
the  authorities  whose  lectures  and  reports  have  been  freely 
quoted  in  describing  the  different  food  industries,  and  to 
many  friends  for  helpful  suggestions.  Special  thanks  are  due 
to  his  colleague  Mr.  A.  W.  Thomas  and  his  former  students 
Miss  Lucy  H.  Gillett  and  Miss  Ethel  Ronzone  each  of  whom  has 
critically  examined  the  entire  work  either  in  manuscript  or  in 
proof.     Corrections  or  suggestions  from  others  who  may  use 

the  book  will  be  appreciated. 

H.  C.  S. 
July,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

PAGR 

The  Principal  Constituents  and  Functions  of  Foods    .        .        1 
Carbohydrates.      Fats.      Proteins.      Ash  constituents.      Sum- 
mary of  the  functions  of  food.     References. 

CHAPTER    n 

Food  Legislation 24 

Principles  of  food  legislation.  The  food  and  drugs  act.  Notes 
on  the  law  and  the  rules  and  regulations  for  its  enforcement. 
State  and  municipal  food  control.     References. 

CHAPTER   III 

xMiLK 48 

Production  and  handling  of  milk.  General  composition. 
Adulteration  and  inspection.  Standards  of  purity.  Detailed 
composition.     Nutritive  value  and  place  in  the  diet.     References. 

CHAPTER   IV 

Cheese  and  Miscellaneous  Milk  Products  ....  86 
Manufacture  of  American  Cheddar  cheese.  Other  varieties 
of  cheese.  Relation  of  microorganisms  to  cheese  making.  Com- 
position, adulteration,  standards  of  purity.  Nutritive  value  of 
cheese  and  its  place  in  the  diet.  Fermented  milks.  Evaporated 
and  condensed  milk.  Dried  or  powdered  milk.  Cream.  Ice 
cream  and  related  products.     References. 

CHAPTER   V 

Eggs 128 

Production.  Chemical  composition.  Nutritive  value  and 
place  in  the  diet.  Trade  practices  in  the  egg  industry.  Cold 
storage  and  its  regulation.     P'rozen  and  dried  eggs.     References. 

vii 


vm  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   VI 

PAGE 

Meats  and  Meat  Products 161 

Beef.  Veal.  Mutton  and  lamb.  Pork.  Legislation  and  in- 
spection. Standards  of  composition  for  meat  products.  Nutri- 
tive value  of  meats  and  meat  products.  Relative  economy  of 
different  cuts  of  meat.     Place  of  meat  in  the  diet.     References. 

CHAPTER   VII 

Poultry,  Game,  Fish,  and  Shellfish 220 

Poultry.  Game.  Fish.  Preserved  fish.  Shellfish.  Com- 
parison of  poultry,  fish,  and  shellfish  with  other  flesh  foods. 
References. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

Grain  Products 251 

Barley.  Buckwheat.  Maize  or  Indian  corn.  Manufacture  of 
starch  and  other  products  from  corn.  Oats.  Rice.  Rye. 
Wheat.  Flour  and  bread.  Breakfast  cereals.  Composition  of 
grain  and  bakery  products.  Nutritive  value  of  grain  products 
and  their  value  as  food.     References. 

CHAPTER    IX 

Vegetables,  Fruits,  and  Nuts 303 

Legumes.  Canning  of  peas.  Digestibility  and  nutritive  value. 
Physiological  effects  of  peas  greened  with  copper.  Potatoes, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  yams.  Other  vegetables.  Composition  of 
vegetables.  Fruits  and  nuts.  Composition  of  fruits  and  nuts. 
Digestibility  and  nutritive  value.  Place  of  nuts  in  the  diet. 
Place  of  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the  diet.     References. 

CHAPTER   X 

Edible  Fats  and  Oils 366 

Butter.  Composition  of  butter.  Process  butter.  Oleomarga- 
rine (margarine).  Vegetable  fats  as  butter  substitutes.  Olive 
oil.  Other  edible  oils.  Lard  and  lard  substitutes.  Place  of  fats 
in  the  diet.     References. 


CONTENTS  IX 

CHAPTER   XI 

PAGE 

Sugars,  Sirups,  and  Confectionery 397 

The  cane  sugar  industry.  Sugar  refining.  The  beet  sugar 
industry.  Extent  of  the  sugar  industry.  By-products  of  sugar 
manufacture.  Molasses,  sirups,  honey.  Confectionery.  Place 
of  sugars  in  the  diet.     References. 

CHAPTER  Xn 

Food  Adjuncts  and  Unclassified  Food  Materials  .        .        .    448 
Salt.     Spices.     Flavoring  extracts.     Unclassified  food  mate- 
rials.    Tea,  coffee,  cocoa.     Other  beverages.    Vinegar.     Refer- 
ences. 

APPENDIX   A 

Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  Enforcement  of  the  Food 

AND  Drugs  Act 479 

APPENDIX   B 
Food  Inspection  Decisions 501 

APPENDIX   C 

Methods  and  Standards  for  the  Production  and  Distribu- 
tion of  Certified  Milk 533 

APPENDIX   D 
Meat  Inspection  Law  and  Regulations 545 

APPENDIX   E 
Table  of  100-Calorie  Portions 561 


FOOD    PRODUCTS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    PRINCIPAL    CONSTITUENTS    AND     FUNCTIONS 

OF  FOOD 

Through  the  food  the  body  obtains  the  substances  which 
enter  into  its  structure,  which  yield  energy  for  its  activities, 
and  which  regulate  the  processes  essential  to  life  and  health. 

Most  articles  of  food  contain  water,  as  shown  by  the  fact 
that  they  lose  weight  on  drying.  The  dry  residue  consists  mainly 
of  combustible  matters,  but  when  these  are  burned  off  there 
usually  remains  some  ash. 

The  combustible  portion  of  the  food  may  comprise  a  variety 
of  organic  compounds,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  staple  foods 
nearly  all  of  the  organic  matter  is  found  to  be  comprised  within 
three  groups  of  substances  —  the  carbohydrates  (such  as  the 
starches  and  sugars) ,  the  fats  (such  as  those  of  butter,  olive  oil, 
corn  oil,  lard,  and  meat  fat),  and  the  proteins  (such  as  the  al- 
bumin of  egg,  the  curd  of  milk  or  cheese,  the  muscle  fiber  of 
meat,  the  gluten  of  flour  or  bread).  Meat  extracts  and  many 
vegetables  contain  nitrogen  compounds  simpler  than  proteins, 
the  so-called  "  nitrogenous  extractives  "  or  "  nitrogenous  non- 
proteins." In  green  vegetables  and  berries  a  small  part  of  the 
organic  material  consists  of  coloring  matters,  resins,  and  waxes. 
In  the  main,  however,  the  organic  matter  of  food  consists  essen- 
tially of  proteins,  fats,  and  carbohydrates,  and  in  the  methods 
commonly  used  for  the  routine  analysis  of  foods  the  minor 
organic   constituents   are   apt  to  be   ignored,  all  nitrogenous 


2  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

material  being  counted  as  protein ;  all  material  soluble  in  ether, 
as  fat ;  and  all  other  organic  material,  as  carbohydrate. 

If  we  consider  the  composition  of  food  materials  in  terms  of 
elements  rather  than  compounds,  we  find  that  the  plant  and 
animal  tissues  which  we  use  as  food  are  composed  mainly  of 
the  same  twelve  chemical  elements  which  chiefly  compose 
the  tissues  of  the  body ;  namely,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  sodium,  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron.  Iodine,  fluorine,  and  probably 
silicon  and  manganese  are  also  essential  to  the  body  and  so  must 
be  supplied  by  the  food;  but  the  amounts  of  these  latter  ele- 
ments are  so  small  that  they  are  usually  scarcely  measurable 
by  the  ordinary  methods  of  food  analysis. 

While  the  ash  of  foods  is  composed  of  relatively  simple  inor- 
ganic (mineral)  compounds  such  as  the  chlorides,  phosphates, 
sulphates,  and  carbonates  of  sodium,  potassium,  calciimi, 
magnesium,  and  iron,  it  does  not  follow  that  these  elements 
exist  in  the  form  of  the  same  inorganic  compounds  in  the  food. 
In  many  cases  the  inorganic  compounds  found  in  the  ash  are 
to  a  large  extent  formed  during  the  burning  of  the  food,  the 
base-forming  elements  having  existed  in  combination  with 
organic  acids  or  with  proteins,  while  the  acid  radicles  may  also 
have  existed  in  organic  combination  or  may  have  been  formed 
by  the  oxidation  of  the  sulphur,  phosphorus,  or  carbon  of  the 
organic  matter. 

The  principal  chemical  elements  of  foods  and  the  most  im- 
portant kinds  of  compounds  in  which  they  are  found  may  there- 
fore be  summarized  as  follows : 


forming  Water. 


Hydrogen 
Oxygen 

,^    ,  forming   Carbohydrates,  Fats   (and 

Hydrogen  °.        r.        ■    k  -a  \ 

„  sometimes  Orgamc  Acids). 
Oxygen      J 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS  OF   FOOD      3 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

(sometimes) 
Iron 

(sometimes) 


forming  Proteins. 


Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Chlorine 

Sodium 

Potassium 

Calcium 

Magnesium 

Iron 


forming  Ash  Constituents  which  exist 
partly  as  mineral  salts  and  partly 
in  combination  with  carbohydrates, 
fats,  proteins,  and  other  organic 
compounds. 


The  tdtimate  composition  of  a  food  is  its  composition  as  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  the  chemical  elements  into  which  it  might 
ultimately  be  resolved,  —  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, sulphur,  etc. 

The  proximate  composition  is  the  composition  in  terms  of  the 
compounds  actually  present  —  proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates, 
mineral  salts,  water.  These  five  groups  of  compounds  have 
sometimes  been  called  the  "  proximate  principles  "  of  food,  or 
the  "  five  food  principles."  As  a  precaution  against  ambiguity 
this  use  of  the  term  "  principles  "  is  now  generally  avoided,  but 
there  is  frequent  occasion  to  use  the  terms  "  ultimate  "  and 
"  proximate  "  in  speaking  of  the  composition  and  analysis  of 
foods  and  it  is  well  to  keep  the  exact  chemical  significances  of 
these  terms  in  mind.  The  word  "  proximate  "  must  not  be 
confused  with  "  approximate." 

Food  materials  and  foodstuffs.    The  term  "  food  materials  "  is 


4  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

synonymous  with  the  expression  "  articles  of  foods. "  Thus  bread, 
meat,  eggs,  milk,  are  spoken  of  as  food  materials.  The  term"  food- 
stuffs "  as  a  scientific  term,  and  as  it  will  be  used  in  this  work, 
means  the  stuffs  that  foods  are  made  of,  or,  in  the  terms  which 
we  have  been  using,  the  substances  of  which  the  food  materials 
are  composed.  Thus  the  proteins,  fats,  and  carbohydrates 
and  the  various  organic  and  inorganic  compounds  of  phosphorus, 
potassium,  iron,  etc.,  which  occur  in  food  materials  are  food- 
stuffs. 

The  chemistry  and  nutritive  significance  of  the  foodstuffs, 
both  organic  and  inorganic,  has  been  discussed  by  the  writer 
in  another  volume  {Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition)  and  cannot 
be  repeated  here  in  any  detail.  A  brief  summary  of  some  of 
the  facts  having  most  relation  to  what  follows  in  later  chap- 
ters may,  however,  be  advantageous  at  this  point. 

Carbohydrates.  The  carbohydrates  include  the  simple  sugars 
and  all  the  substances  which  can  be  split  (by  hydrolysis)  into 
simple  sugars.  The  simple  sugars,  having  only  one  sugar  radicle 
in  the  molecule,  are  called  "mono-saccharides."  Sugars  whose 
molecules  contain  two  sugar  radicles,  and  from  each  molecule 
of  which  two  molecules  of  monosaccharide  can  be  obtained  by 
hydrolysis,  are  called  disaccharides.  Substances  like  starch 
and  dextrin  which  can  be  hydrolyzed  to  simple  sugars  but  which 
are  of  high  molecular  weight,  each  molecule  containing  many 
monosaccharide   radicles,   are   called  polysaccharides. 

The  monosaccharides  are  given  group  names  according  to 
the  number  of  carbon  atoms  in  the  molecule,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  classification  which  follows : 
Monosaccharides 
Hexoses  (C6H12O6) 

Glucose  (dextrose,  grape  sugar,  starch  sugar) 

Fructose  (levulose,  fruit  sugar) 

Galactose 

Mannose 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  FOOD      5 

Pentoses  (C5H10O5) 

Arabinose 

Xylose 
Disaccharides  (C12H22OU) 

Sucrose  (cane  sugar,  saccharose) 

Lactose  (milk  sugar) 

Maltose  (malt  sugar) 
Trisaccharide  (CisHsoOie) 

Raffinose  (meletriose) 
Polysaccharides 

Hexosans  (CeHioOs)! 

Starch 

Dextrin 

Glycogen  ,    % 

Inulin  (^ 

Galactan 

Mannan 

Cellulose 
Pentosans  (C5H804)j; 

Araban 

Xylan 
Some  of  these  carbohydrates  are  of  very  great,  and  others 
of  relatively  little,  practical  importance. 

Glucose  is  widely  distributed  in  nature,  occurring  abundantly 
in  many  fruits  and  plant  juices,  often  mixed  with  other  sugars. 
Since  most  of  the  other  carbohydrates  yield  glucose  when  split 
by  the  digestive  ferments  the  total  amount  of  glucose  which 
is  absorbed  into  the  body  is  much  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  sugar.  Normal  blood  always  contains  glucose  (usually 
about  0.1  per  cent)  which  is  constantly  being  burned  to  yield 
energy  to  the  body.  Any  surplus  of  glucose  absorbed  from 
the  digestive  tract  is  normally  stored  in  the  body  in  the 
form  of  glycogen  which  latter  is  converted  back  into  glucose 
as  needed  to   replace  that    which   has   been   burned.     Com- 


6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

mercially  glucose  is  made  by  hydrolysis  of  starch  as  explained 
in  Chapter  VIII. 

Fructose  occurs  with  glucose  in  plant  juices  and  especially 
in  fruits  and  honey.  It  is  formed  along  with  an  equal  weight 
of  glucose  when  cane  sugar  is  hydrolyzed ;  hence  its  occurrence 
in  molasses  and  sirups  as  well  as  honey.  (See  Chapter  XI.) 
When  cane  sugar  is  eaten  it  is  not  absorbed  as  such,  but  i;, 
changed  into  equal  parts  of  glucose  and  fructose  in  digestion. 
The  fructose  absorbed  into  the  body  serves  the  same  purposes 
as  glucose  and  like  glucose  may  be  changed  into  glycogen  for 
storage.  Glucose  and  fructose  are  the  only  monosaccharides 
which  occur  as  such  in  foods. 

Galactose  does  not  occur  free  in  nature  or  in  commercial  food  products,  but 
as  a  product  of  digestion  of  milk  sugar  it  is  of  some  importance  in  nutri- 
tion.    It  is  utilized  like  glucose  in  the  body. 

Maimose  also  is  not  found  free.  It  may  result  from  the  digestion  of 
mannan,  occurring,  for  example,  in  certain  Japanese  foods,  and  when  ab- 
sorbed into  the  blood  it  is  utilized  like  glucose  or  galactose. 

Arabinose  and  xylose  are  not  found  free  in  nature  nor  in  commercial  food 
products. 

Sucrose  occurs  commonly  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  being 
found  in  considerable  quantity  in  many  familiar  fruits  and 
vegetables.  Usually  these  sweet  fruits  and  plant  juices  contain 
glucose  and  fructose  along  with  the  sucrose,  and  also  other 
substances  which  make  it  difficult  to  separate  the  sucrose  in 
crystalline  form.  The  juices  of  the  sugar  cane,  the  sugar 
beet,  and  to  a  less  extent  certain  maple  and  palm  trees,  contain 
enough  sucrose  and  little  enough  of  other  substances  to  make 
it  practicable  to  manufacture  sugar  from  them  commercially. 
(See  Chapter  XL)  On  hydrolysis  a  molecule  of  sucrose  yields 
one  molecule  each  of  glucose  and  fructose.  The  process  is  often 
called  "  inversion  "  and  the  product  "  invert  sugar."  When 
eaten,  sucrose  is  digested  into  glucose  and  fructose,  the  nutri- 
tive functions  of  which  have  been  mentioned  above. 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS   OF   FOOD      7 

Lactose  occurs  in  milk  and  is  made  commercially  from  the 
whey  of  milk  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  or  casein.  In 
the  body  lactose  is  digested  into  equal  parts  of  glucose  and  galac- 
tose, the  nutritive  functions  of  which  have  been  noted  above. 

Maltose  occurs  in  malted  or  germinated  grains,  in  malt  ex- 
tracts, etc.,  but  the  amount  of  maltose  eaten  as  such  is  not 
likely  to  be  large.  It  is  formed  in  quantity  by  the  digestion  of 
starch  by  the  saliva  or  the  pancreatic  juice.  Maltose,  however, 
whether  eaten  or  formed  in  the  course  of  digestion  is  not  ab- 
sorbed as  such  to  any  important  extent,  but  is  split  by  a  diges- 
tive ferment  of  the  intestinal  juice,  each  molecule  of  maltose 
yielding  two  molecules  of  glucose. 

Raffinose  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  the  germs  of  several  seeds.  It  is  of 
no  practical  importance  for  its  own  sake,  but  occasionally  acquires  technical 
importance  through  developing  in  sugar  beets  (especially  when  the  latter 
are  unhealthy  or  injured)  in  suflScient  amount  to  interfere  with  the  crystal- 
lization of  the  sucrose.  When  hydrolyzed  one  molecule  of  raffinose  yields 
one  molecule  each  of  glucose,  fructose,  and  galactose. 

Starch  is  the  chief  form  in  which  most  plants  store  their 
reserve  supply  of  carbohydrate  material.  It  constitutes  over 
one  half  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  cereal  grains  and  an  even 
larger  proportion  of  the  total  solids  of  some  other  starchy  foods 
such  as  potatoes,  bananas,  and  chestnuts.  In  the  processes 
of  digestion,  starch  (especially  when  it  has  been  cooked)  is 
changed  to  maltose  and  the  latter  (as  stated  above)  into  glu- 
cose. In  addition  to  the  direct  use  of  starchy  materials  as  food, 
much  starch  is  separated  on  an  industrial  scale  (Chapter  VIII) 
and  used  as  such  or  as  a  source  of  dextrin,  maltose,  commercial 
glucose,  or  fermentation  products. 

Raw  starch  is  easily  seen  under  the  microscope  to  consist  of 
distinct  granules,  the  size  and  shape  of  which  differ  greatly  in 
the  starches  formed  in  different  types  of  plants.  Figure  i 
represents  starch  granules  from  potato,  wheat,  and  corn  (maize), 
all  magnified  in  the  same  proportion. 


8 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Dextrins  are  formed  from  starch  by  the  action  of  ferments, 
acids,  or  heat.  Although  usually  represented  by  the  same 
empirical  formula  as  starch,  the  dextrins  appear  in  general  as 


Potato  starch. 
Fig.   ] 


Wheat  starch. 


Corn  starch. 


•Starch  granules  magnified  300  diameters. 


intermediary  products  in  the  hydrolysis  of  starch  to  maltose 
or  glucose ;  hence  no  further  discussion  is  required  here. 

Glycogen  is  the  chief  reserve  form  of  carbohydrate  in  animals 
as  starch  is  in  plants.  For  this  reason  and  because  of  its  physi- 
cal properties  and  its  chemical  relationship  to  maltose  and 
glucose,  it  is  often  called  "  animal  starch."  It  is  stored  prin- 
cipally in  the  liver  and  to  a  small  extent  in  the  muscles. 

Inulin  is  a  white  powdery  substance,  found  in  a  few  vegetables,  which 
on  hydrolysis  yields  fructose.     It  is  of  practically  no  importance  as  food. 

Galactans  are  found  in  smaU  quantity  in  many  plants  and  in  larger 
amounts  in  the  seeds  of  legumes.     On  hydrolysis  they  yield  galactose. 

Mannans,  yielding  mannose  on  hydrolysis,  occur  in  some  food  materials, 
but  are  not  of  practical  importance  in  this  country. 

Cellulose  is  familiar  as  a  woody  or  fibrous  material  occurring  in  the  cell 
walls  of  all  vegetable  tissues.  It  yields  glucose  on  hydrolysis,  but  is  not 
digested  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  make  it  of  much  nutritive  value  to  man, 
though  it  is  often  of  value  in  giving  proper  bulk  to  the  diet. 

The  pentosans,  araban  and  xylan  which  yield  arabinose  and  xylose  re- 
spectively on  hydrolysis,  are  quite  widely  distributed  among  plant  products, 
but  as  a  rule  occur  only  in  small  quantities  in  those  parts  of  plants  which 
are  commonly  used  as  human  food. 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS  OF   FOOD      9 

From  what  has  been  said  above  it  will  be  clear  that  the 
various  digestible  carbohydrates  of  the  food,  having  been  split 
by  the  digestive  ferments  to  monosaccharide,  are  absorbed  into 
the  blood.  Any  surplus  is  stored  temporarily  in  the  form  of 
glycogen,  chiefly  in  the  liver,  though  to  some  extent  in  the 
muscles.  The  glucose  which  circulates  in  the  blood  is  burned 
in  the  muscles  and  other  active  tissues  as  fuel,  the  burned  glu- 
cose being  constantly  replaced  by  new  glucose  derived  from  the 
stored  glycogen  so  that  under  ordinary  conditions  the  carbohy- 
drate of  the  food  is  entirely  burned  as  fuel.  When  more  carbo- 
hydrate is  received  than  is  burned,  the  surplus  is  stored  as  gly- 
cogen but  only  to  a  limited  extent,  the  total  amount  of  glycogen 
which  the  body  can  store  being  estimated  at  less  than  one  pound 
or  only  about  as  much  carbohydrate  as  might  be  contained  in 
the  food  of  one  day.  A  surplus  of  carbohydrate,  in  addition 
to  being  stored  as  glycogen,  may  also  be  converted  into  fat,  and 
this  transformation  of  carbohydrate  into  fat  can  be  carried  on 
to  a  very  large  extent  and  with  almost  no  loss  of  energy. 
The  energy  value  to  the  body  of  average  carbohydrate  in  the 
food  is  4.0  Calories  per  gram,  or  1814  Calories  per  pound. 

Organic  acids.  Some  foods  contain  considerable  quantities  of  organic 
acids  or  their  salts.  Oranges  and  lemons,  for  instance,  are  rich  in  citric 
acid ;  grapes  contain  potassium  acid  tartrate ;  apples  and  other  fruits 
contain  malic  acid,  and  many  fruits  contain  succinic  acid.  A  few  foods 
contain  oxalic  acid  or  oxalates,  but  these  are  probably  of  little  food  value. 
Fermented  foods  may  contain  appreciable  quantities  of  lactic  acid  as  in 
sauerkraut  and  sour  milk,  buttermilk,  etc.,  or  acetic  acid  as  in  vinegar. 

With  the  exception  of  oxalic  acid,  these  organic  acids  appear  to  be  very 
readily  burned  in  the  body  and  doubtless  their  energy  is  used  in  practically 
the  same  way  as  the  energy  of  the  carbohydrates.  The  fuel  values  of  some 
of  these  acids  have  been  determined  as  follows :  acetic  acid,  3.5  Calories 
per  gram;  citric  acid,  2.5  Calories  per  gram;  lactic  acid,  3.7  Calories  per 
gram;  succinic  acid,  3.0  Calories  per  gram;  tartaric  acid,  1.7  Calories  per 
gram.  While  these  values  are  somewhat  lower  than  those  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, it  is  not  uncommon  in  reckoning  the  fuel  value  of  a  food  to  count 
the  organic  acid  as  carbohydrate,  especially  as  in  routine  analyses  the  acids 


lO  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

are  often  not  determined  nor  are  the  carbohydrates  determined  directly, 
but  all  of  the  material  not  found  to  be  moisture,  protein,  fat,  or  ash  is  often 
considered  to  be  carbohydrate  for  the  purposes  of  ordinary  estimations  of 
food  values. 

Fats 

The  fats  are  all  glycerides;  that  is,  substances  consisting  of 
combinations  of  glycerol  (commercially  called  "  glycerin ") 
with  fatty  acids.  Many  of  these  fatty  acids  belong  chemically 
to  the  same  series  with  acetic  acid.  The  members  of  this  series 
occurring  naturally  in  fats  are  butyric  acid,  C4H8O2 ;  caproic 
acid,  C6H12O2 ;  caprylic  acid,  C8H16O2 ;  capric  acid,  C10H20O2 ; 
lauric  acid,  C12H24O2 ;  myristic  acid,  C14H28O2 ;  palmitic  acid, 
C16H32O2;   stearic  acid,  C18H36O2. 

Butyric  acid  is  a  liquid  which  mixes  in  all  proportions  with 
water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  can  be  boiled  without  decomposition, 
and  is  readily  volatile  in  steam. 

With  increasing  molecular  weight,  the  acids  of  this  series 
regularly  show  increasing  boiling  or  melting  points,  decreasing 
solubility,  and  become  less  volatile.  Those  up  to  capric  acid  are 
liquids  at  ordinary  temperatures ;  those  above  are  solids.  The 
higher  the  molecular  weight,  the  harder  the  solid.  Stearic  acid 
is  a  hard  paraffin-like  crystalline  solid  insoluble  in  water  and 
only  moderately  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 

The  properties  of  the  fats  themselves  depend  upon  and  run 
parallel  with  those  of  the  fatty  acids. 

In  addition  to  the  fatty  acids  of  the  series  to  which  acetic, 
butyric,  and  stearic  acids  belong,  all  of  which  are  saturated 
compounds,  there  are  several  unsaturated  fatty  acids,  capable 
of  combining  chemically  with  hydrogen,  oxygen,  or  iodine  by 
direct  addition.  The  most  important  of  these  contain  eighteen 
carbon  atoms  to  the  molecule  and  therefore  resemble  stearic 
acid  in  molecular  size. 

The  most  important  of  these  unsaturated  fatty  acids  are: 
oleic  acid,  C18H34O2;    linoleic  acid,   C18H32O2;    linolenic  acid. 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS  OF  FOOD     1 1 

C18H30O2.  All  of  these  acids  and  their  glycerides  are  liquid  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Commercial  fats  consisting  mainly 
of  the  glycerides  of  these  acids  are  therefore  liquids  and  are 
usually  called  oils.  The  chief  chemical  difference  between  olive 
oil  and  lard  is  that  the  former  contains  more  olein  (glyceride  of 
oleic  acid)  and  the  latter  more  of  palmitin  and  stearin  (glycerides 
of  palmitic  and  stearic  acids).  Olein  or  linolein  (glyceride  of 
linoleic  acid)  may  be  converted  into  stearin  by  direct  chemical 
union  with  hydrogen,  and  this  is  now  done  on  a  commercial  scale 
for  the  hardening  of  fatty  oils  so  as  to  give  them  the  consistency 
of  lard.     (See  Chapter  X.) 

The  body  fat  of  man  and  of  the  animals  commonly  used  as 
food  consists  chiefly  of  glycerides  of  palmitic,  stearic,  and  oleic 
acids.  Since  palmitin  and  stearin  are  solids,  while  olein  is  a 
liquid,  the  hardness  or  softness  of  these  fats  is  principally  due 
to  the  proportion  of  olein  which  they  contain.  Butter  fat  con- 
tains all  of  the  fatty  acids  listed  above  in  the  series  from  butyric 
to  stearic  acid  and  is  distinguished  from  the  other  food  fats 
principally  by  this  fact.  Olive  oil  consists  chiefly  of  palmitin, 
stearin,  and  olein,  but  contains  much  more  olein  and  much  less 
stearin  than  the  ordinary  solid  fats.  In  cottonseed  oil,  sesame 
oil,  and  other  seed  oils  used  as  food,  the  quantities  of  palmitin 
and  stearin  are  still  smaller  and,  in  addition  to  large  quantities 
of  olein,  considerable  quantities  of  linolein  and  in  some  cases 
even  linolenin  may  occur. 

In  ordinary  food  analysis,  fat  is  determined  by  extraction 
with  ether.  All  ether-soluble  substances  are  therefore  likely 
to  be  counted  as  fat.  In  this  way  some  small  quantities  of  mate- 
rials of  less  food  value  are  likely  to  be  counted  along  with  the 
fat  of  the  food.  The  commercial  food  fats  are  nearly  free  from 
other  substances  (except  that  butter  contains  water  and  salt) 
and  have  therefore  nearly  the  same  composition  and  food  value. 
Descriptions  of  the  edible  fats  and  oils  and  discussion  of  their 
digestibility  and  place  in  the  diet  will  be  found  in  Chapter  X. 


12  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

The  fat  of  the  food  after  digestion  and  absorption  is  again 
found  in  the  blood  in  the  form  of  glycerides  or  neutral  fat 
which  disappears  partly  by  being  burned  in  the  muscles  and 
other  active  tissues  where  it  is  used  as  fuel  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  carbohydrate  and  if  in  excess  of  the  fuel  requirements 
of  the  body,  the  fat  obtained  from  the  food  may  also  be  stored 
in  the  tissues.  The  body  fat  obtained  thus  directly  from  the 
food  may  show  somewhat  different  characters  from  the  fat  which 
has  been  formed  in  the  body  from  carbohydrate,  but  its  nutri- 
tive relations  appear  to  be  exactly  the  same.  In  either  case, 
the  fat  thus  stored  in  the  body  may  be  drawn  upon  for  use  as 
fuel  at  any  future  time  when  the  energy  requirements  of  the  body 
demand  it. 

The  energy  value  to  the  body  of  average  food  fat  is  9.0  Cal- 
ories per  gram,  or  4082  Calories  per  pound. 

Proteins  (Nitrogen  Compounds) 

Among  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  foods,  the  proteins 
usually  so  far  predominate  that  the  term  protein  is  often  used 
as  practically  synonymous  with  the  nitrogen  compounds  of 
food  materials.  For  this  reason,  and  because  the  great  majority 
of  proteins  contain  from  15  to  18  per  cent,  averaging  about 
16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  the  protein  content  of  food  materials  is 
usually  estimated  by  determining  nitrogen  and  multiplying  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen  found  by  6.25. 

The  proteins  are  very  complex  substances  and  in  no  case  is 
the  chemical  constitution  of  a  natural  protein  fully  and  exactly 
known.  It  has,  however,  been  determined  that  the  typical 
proteins  are  essentially  anhydrides  of  amino  acids.  Thus  the 
relation  of  the  protein  molecule  to  the  amino  acids,  from  which 
it  is  derived  and  into  which  it  can  be  resolved,  is  analogous  to 
the  relation  of  starch  to  glucose.  There  is,  however,  this 
striking  difference :  that  the  molecules  of  monosaccharide 
derived  from  the  complete  hydrolysis  of  the  starch  are  all  alike 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS   AND   FUNCTIONS   OF   FOOD     1 3 

(glucose),  whereas  the  complete  hydrolysis  of  a  protein  always 
yields  several  different  amino  acids,  usually  from  twelve  to 
fifteen. 

The  names  ^  of  the  amino  acids  commonly  met  as  products  of 
hydrolysis  of  proteins  are :  glycin  (glycocoll) ,  alanin,  serin, 
valin,  leucin,  prolin,  phenylalanin,  tyrosin,  aspartic  acid,  glu- 
tamic (glutaminic)  acid,  lysin,  arginin,  histidin,  tryptophan, 
cystin.  The  strict  chemical  names  and  structural  formulae  of 
these  amino  acids  are  given  in  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition, 
Chapter  I. 

Classification.  There  has  been  considerable  confusion  in  the 
classification  and  terminology  of  the  proteins,  and  even  in  the 
publications  of  the  present  day,  the  same  terms  may  sometimes 
be  found  employed  with  different  meanings  by  different  writers. 
The  classification  now  generally  approved  is  as  follows : 

I.  Simple  proteins.  Protein  substances  which  yield  only 
amino  acids  or  their  derivatives  on  hydrolysis. 

(c)  Albumins.  Simple  proteins  soluble  in  pure  water  and 
coagulable  by  heat.  Examples:  egg  albumen,  lact-albumen 
(milk),  serum  albumen  (blood),  leucosin  (wheat),  legumelin 
(peas). 

{b)  Globulins.  Simple  proteins  insoluble  in  pure  water,  but 
soluble  in  neutral  salt  solutions.  Examples :  muscle  globulin, 
serum  globulin  (blood),  edestin  (wheat,  hemp  seed,  and  other 
seeds),  phaseolin  (beans),  legumin  (beans  and  peas),  vignin 
(cow  peas),  tuberin  (potato),  amandin  (almonds),  excelsin 
(Brazil  nuts). 

{c)  Glutelins.  Simple  proteins  insoluble  in  all  neutral  solvents, 
but  readily  soluble  in  very  dilute  acids  and  alkalies.  The  best 
known  and  most  important  member  of  this  group  is  the  glutenin 
of  wheat. 

{d)  Alcohol  soluble  proteins.     Simple  proteins  soluble  in  rela- 

1  The  names  of  the  amino  acids  may  be  spelled  either  with  or  without  the  final 
«,  e.g.,  glycine  or  glycin,  alanine  or  alanin. 


14  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

lively  strong  alcohol  (70-80  per  cent)  but  insoluble  in  water, 
absolute  alcohol,  and  other  neutral  solvents.  Examples: 
gliadin  (wheat),  zein  (corn),  hordein  (barley). 

(e)  Albuminoids.  These  are  the  simple  proteins  characteristic 
of  the  skeletal  structures  of  animals  (for  which  reason  they  are 
also  called  scleroproteins)  and  also  of  the  external  protective 
tissues  such  as  the  skin,  hair,  etc.  None  of  these  proteins  is 
used  for  food  in  the  natural  state,  but  collagen  when  boiled  with 
water  yields  gelatin  so  that  these  two  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  food  chemistry. 

(f)  Histories.  Soluble  in  water,  and  insoluble  in  very  dilute 
ammonia,  and  in  the  absence  of  ammonium  salts  insoluble  even 
in  an  excess  of  ammonia;  yield  precipitates  with  solutions  of 
other  proteins  and  a  coagulum  on  heating  which  is  easily  soluble 
in  very  dilute  acids.  On  hydrolysis  they  yield  several  amino 
acids  among  which  the  basic  ones  predominate.  The  only 
members  of  this  group  which  have  any  considerable  importance 
as  food  are  the  thymus  histone  and  the  globin  derived  from  the 
hemoglobin  of  the  blood. 

{g)  Protamines.  These  are  simpler  substances  than  the 
preceding  groups,  are  soluble  in  water,  uncoagulable  by  heat, 
possess  strong  basic  properties  and  on  hydrolysis  yield  a  few 
amino  acids  among  which  the  basic  amino  acids  greatly  pre- 
dominate.    They  are  of  no  importance  as  food. 

II.  Conjugated  proteins.  Substances  which  contain  the 
protein  molecule  united  to  some  other  molecule  or  molecules 
otherwise  than  as  a  salt. 

(a)  Nudeo proteins.  Compounds  of  one  or  more  protein 
molecules  with  nucleic  acid.  Examples  of  the  nucleic  acids  thus 
found  united  with  proteins  are  thymo-nucleic  acid  (thymus 
gland),  tritico-nucleic  acid  (wheat  germ). 

(b)  Glycoproteins.  Compounds  of  the  protein  molecule  with 
a  substance  or  substances  containing  a  carbohydrate  group  other 
than  a  nucleic  acid.     Example :    mucins. 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS   OF  FOOD     15 

(c)  Phosphoproteins.  Compounds  in  which  the  phosphorus 
is  in  organic  union  with  the  protein  molecule  otherwise  than  in 
a  nucleic  acid  or  lecithin.  Examples:  caseinogen  (milk), 
ovovitellin  (egg  yolk). 

(d)  Hemoglobins.  Compounds  of  the  protein  molecule  with 
hematin  or  some  similar  substance.  Example:  hemoglobin 
of  blood.  (The  redness  of  meat  is  due  chiefly  to  the  hemoglobin 
of  the  blood  which  the  meat  still  retains.) 

(e)  Lecitho proteins.  Compounds  of  the  protein  molecule 
with  lecithins  or  related  substances. 

III.  Derived  proteins. 

1.  Primary  protein  derivatives.  Derivatives  of  the  protein 
molecule  apparently  formed  through  hydrolytic  changes  which 
involve  only  slight  alterations  of  the  protein  molecule. 

(a)  Proteans.  Insoluble  products  which  apparently  result 
from  the  incipient  action  of  water,  very  dilute  acids  or 
enzymes.  Examples:  casein  (curdled  milk),  fibrin  (coagulated 
blood). 

{b)  Metaproteins.  Products  of  the  further  action  of  acids  and 
alkalies  whereby  the  molecule  is  sufficiently  altered  to  form 
proteins  soluble  in  very  weak  acids  and  alkalies,  but  insoluble 
in  neutral  solvents.  This  group  includes  the  substances  which 
have  been  called  "  acid  proteins,"  "  acid  albumins,"  "  syntonin," 
"  alkali  proteins,"   ''  alkali  albumins,"  and  "  albuminates." 

(c)  Coagulated  proteins.  Insoluble  products  which  result 
from  (i)  the  action  of  heat  on  protein  solutions,  or  (2)  the  action 
of  alcohol  on  the  protein.  Example :  cooked  egg  albumin,  or 
egg  albumin  precipitated  by  means  of  alcohol. 

2.  Secondary  protein  derivatives.  Products  of  the  further 
hydrolytic  cleavage  of  the  protein  molecule. 

(a)  Proteoses.  Soluble  in  water,  not  coagulable  by  heat, 
precipitated  by  saturating  their  solutions  with  ammonium  sul- 
phate or  zinc  sulphate.  The  products  commercially  known  as 
"  peptones  "  consist  largely  of  proteoses. 


l6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

(b)  Peptones.  Soluble  in  water,  not  coagulable  by  heat,  and 
not  precipitated  by  saturating  their  solutions  with  ammonium 
sulphate  or  zinc  sulphate.  These  represent  a  further  stage  of 
cleavage  than  the  proteoses. 

(c)  Peptids.  Definitely  characterized  combinations  of  two 
or  more  amino  acids.  An  anhydride  of  two  amino  acid  radicles 
is  called  a  "  di-peptid  "  ;  one  having  three  amino  acid  radicles, 
a  "  tri-peptid  " ;  etc.  Peptids  result  from  the  further  hydro- 
lytic  cleavage  of  the  peptones.  Many  peptids  have  also  been 
made  in  the  laboratory  by  the  linking  together  of  amino  acids. 

Substances  simpler  than  the  peptones  but  containing  several 
amino  acid  radicles  are  often  called  "  polypeptids." 

Behavior  in  Nutrition.^  The  digestion  products  of  the  protein 
absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract  into  the  blood  stream  are 
rapidly  distributed  through  the  body  and  taken  up  by  the 
muscles  and  other  tissues.  A  part  of  the  nitrogenous  material 
thus  received  may  be  utilized  for  the  growth  or  repair  of  tissue 
material ;  the  remainder  is  split  up,  the  nitrogen  being  eliminated 
chiefly  as  urea  and  the  non-nitrogenous  residue  being  either 
burned  as  fuel  or  converted  into  carbohydrate  or  fat. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  in  the  full-grown,  well-nour- 
ished organism,  no  increase  of  protein  tissue  ordinarily  occurs ; 
hence  all  the  protein  received  from  the  food  is  burned  as  fuel, 
whether  it  first  serves  for  the  repair  of  the  body  tissue  or  not. 
The  exact  nature  of  the  repair  process  in  the  tissues  is  not  fully 
known.  It  is  also  uncertain  to  what  extent  the  food  must  supply 
the  exact  amount  of  each  individual  amino  acid  which  is  to  enter 
into  the  constitution  of  the  body  proteins.  It  is  certain  that 
the  body  can  make  glycin  (glycocoll),  while  it  cannot  make 
tryptophan  (certainly  at  least  not  at  a  sufficient  rate  to  meet 
its  needs).  Hence  the  protein  of  the  food  need  not  contain 
glycin  radicles  but  must  contain  tryptophan  radicles  if  it  is  to 
serve  fully  the  nutritive  requirements  of  the  body.     The  evi- 

>  For  fuller  discussion,  see  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition,  Chapter  IV. 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS   OF   FOOD     17 

dence  in  regard  to  the  ability  or  inability  of  the  body  to  make 
certain  other  amino  acids  is  less  clear.  It  is  possible  that  this 
ability  may  vary  with  the  species  and  it  is  altogether  probable 
that  it  differs  with  age  and  development,  since  Osborne  and 
Mendel  have  found  that  a  protein  which  does  not  furnish  the 
amino  acid  lysin  may  serve  as  the  sole  nitrogenous  food  for  a 
full-grown  animal  but  does  not  support  growth.  The  subject  is 
still  under  active  investigation  and  attempts  to  generalize  at  this 
time  would  be  premature,  but  some  further  discussion  will  be 
found  in  Chapters  III  and  VIII.  The  energy  value  to  the 
body  of  average  food  protein  is  4.0  Calories  per  gram,  or  1814 
Calories  per  pound. 

Ash  Constituents 

Sulphur  compounds.  Sulphur  occurs  in  the  food,  as  it  does 
in  the  body,  chiefly  as  a  constituent  of  proteins.  Since  sul- 
phur is  essential  to  the  constitution  of  the  body  proteins,  it  is 
obviously  important  that  sufficient  of  this  element  shall  be 
supplied  by  the  food ;  but  all  food  proteins  also  contain  sulphur 
and  though  the  percentages  of  sulphur  in  individual  proteins 
show  considerable  differences,  the  different  proteins  of  the 
same  food  material  usually  tend  to  balance  each  other  in  this 
respect  so  that  the  sulphur  content  of  the  total  protein  (or  the 
ratio  of  sulphur  to  nitrogen)  is  about  the  same  for  most  staple, 
foods  as  for  the  body. 

Hence  it  is  believed  that  under  ordinary  conditions  food  which 
supplies  adequate  protein  will  thereby  supply  adequate  sulphur 
so  that  sulphur  need  not  ordinarily  be  considered  as  a  separate 
factor  in  determining  food  values,  but  may  usually  be  regarded 
as  sufficiently  provided  for  when  the  protein  requirement  is 
covered. 

When  the  digestion  products  of  the  food  proteins  are  burned 
in  the  body,  the  greater  part  of  the  sulphur  is  oxidized  to  sul- 
phuric acid  and  excreted  as  sulphates. 


l8  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

Phosphorus  compounds.  Phosphorus  compounds  are  essen- 
tial to  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  it  is  important  that  they 
be  adequately  supplied  by  the  food. 

The  various  articles  of  food  differ  greatly  in  phosphorus  con- 
tent, nor  does  the  amount  of  phosphorus  run  even  approximately 
parallel  with  the  protein  content  (as  does  the  sulphur).  Hence 
the  phosphorus  compounds  of  food  materials  should  be  care- 
fully considered  in  forming  judgments  of  nutritive  values. 

The  phosphorus  compounds  of  foods  may  be  grouped  into 
four  general  classes,  one  inorganic  and  three  organic :  (i)  inor- 
ganic phosphates;  (2)  phosphorized  proteins,  including  the 
phosphoproteins  such  as  casein  and  the  nucleoproteins  char- 
acteristic of  cell  nuclei ;  (3)  phosphorized  fats  or  phospholipines, 
such  as  egg  lecithin ;  (4)  combinations  of  phosphoric  acid  with 
carbohydrates  or  with  closely  related  substances  such  as  inosite. 

Some  of  the  organic  compounds  of  phosphorus  are  believed  to 
be  of  greater  food  value  than  the  simple  phosphates. 

All  three  groups  of  organic  phosphorus  compounds  are  more 
or  less  completely  oxidized  in  the  body,  the  phosphorus  being 
finally  excreted  almost  entirely  in  the  form  of  phosphate.  The 
phosphates  of  the  food  while  entering  and  leaving  the  body  in 
essentially  the  same  form  are  nevertheless  utilized  in  some  very 
important  nutritive  functions  such  as  furnishing  material  for 
bone  structure  and  facilitating  the  maintenance  of  the  normal 
neutrality  of  the  blood  and  the  body  tissues. 

Chlorides.  Sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  is  an  essential 
and  a  prominent  constituent  of  the  blood  and  other  body  fluids. 
Carnivorous  animals,  eating  the  blood  as  well  as  the  flesh  of 
their  prey,  obtain  in  this  way  sufficient  salt  for  their  needs  along 
with  their  organic  foodstuffs ;  man  and  the  herbivora  take  salt 
in  addition  to  that  naturally  contained  in  their  food.  Salt  is 
now  such  a  cheap  and  popular  condiment  that  it  is  commonly 
added  to  the  food  in  such  quantities  as  to  make  the  natural 
chloride  content  of  the  food  a  matter  of  no  practical  consequence 


PRINCIPAL   CONSTITUENTS  AND   FUNCTIONS  OF  FOOD     19 

While  sodium  chloride  enters  and  leaves  the  body  in  the 
same  form,  it  performs  important  functions.  From  it  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  of  the  gastric  juice  is  made  and  chiefly  to  it  the 
normal  solvent  power  and  osmotic  pressure  of  the  blood  and 
other  body  fluids  are  due.  The  nature  of  these  functions  makes 
plain  the  imperative  need  for  salt  but  also  suggests  that  too 
much  may  be  almost  as  objectionable  as  too  little.  The  quan- 
tities of  salt  now  commonly  eaten  are  certainly  larger  than 
necessary  and  probably  larger  than  are  desirable. 

Sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  Sodium  occurs 
in  the  food  chiefly  in  the  form  of  sodium  chloride;  potassium 
chiefly  as  phosphate,  as  salts  of  organic  acids  and  perhaps  in 
other  organic  combinations.  The  quantity  of  sodium  present 
naturally  in  foods  is  usually  not  of  great  significance  because 
of  the  large  amounts  in  the  form  of  common  salt  used  as  a  condi- 
ment. Potassium  is  particularly  abundant  in  many  of  the  vege- 
tables. To  a  certain  extent  sodium  and  potassium  appear  to 
act  antagonistically  in  the  body  so  that  the  large  quantity  of 
potassium  taken  in  when  such  vegetables  ar6  eaten  freely  must 
be  balanced  by  the  taking  of  common  salt. 

There  must  also  be  maintained  in  the  body  a  proper  balance 
between  sodium  and  calcium.  For  example,  the  rhythmical 
contraction  and  relaxation  of  heart  muscle  which  constitutes 
the  normal  beating  of  the  heart  is  dependent  upon  this  muscle 
being  bathed  by  a  fluid  containing  the  proper  concentration  and 
quantitative  proportions  of  sodium  and  calcium. 

In  another  direction  there  appears  to  be  a  somewhat  analogous 
balancing  of  calcium  and  magnesium. 

Since  these  elements  are  not  only  not  interchangeable  but  are 
in  some  respects  mutually  antagonistic,  it  is  evident  that  each 
must  be  supplied  in  sufficient  quantity  to  permit  the  proper 
performance  of  its  specific  functions.  In  the  case  of  sodium, 
the  liberal  use  of  salt  as  a  condiment  insures  a  more  than  ample 
supply.     Potassium  and  magnesium  appear  to  be  sufficiently 


20  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

abundant  in  most  staple  foods  so  that  it  is  not  usually  necessary 
to  specifically  consider  these  elements  in  estimates  of  food  values. 
Calcium  is  not  always  sufficiently  abundant  even  when  the  food 
is  freely  chosen ;  hence  the  richness  of  a  food  in  calcium  is  a 
factor  affecting  its  value. 

It  was  seen  above  that  the  sulphur  entering  the  body  in  the 
protein  of  the  food  is  mainly  burned  to  sulphuric  acid.  This 
acid  must  of  course  be  neutralized  as  fast  as  formed,  and  while 
the  body  has  other  resources  which  can  be  drawn  upon  to  effect 
this  neutralization,  it  appears  to  be  distinctly  advantageous 
that  the  food  shall  furnish  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  base-forming 
elements,  in  addition  to  those  already  in  the  form  of  mineral 
salts,  to  neutralize  the  fixed  acids  which  are  produced  in  me- 
tabolism. The  most  ava'ilable  source  of  base  for  this  purpose  is 
found  in  the  compounds  of  the  base-forming  elements  (chiefly 
potassium)  with  the  organic  acids  or  other  organic  matter  of 
the  foods.  The  significance  of  the  balance  between  acid-form- 
ing and  base-forming  elements  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in 
Chapter  IX. 

Iron.  Iron  occurs  in  the  food  almost  entirely  in  organic  form 
as  a  constituent  of  certain  proteins.  The  simpler  forms,  chiefly 
inorganic,  in  which  iron  is  given  medicinally  do  not  seem  to  have 
the  same  nutritive  effect  as  the  food-iron. 

The  greater  part  of  the  iron  in  the  body  exists  as  an  essential 
constituent  of  the  hemoglobin  of  the  blood,  the  remainder  being 
chiefly  in  the  chromatin  substances  of  the  cells.  There  is  no  con- 
siderable reserve  store  of  inactive  iron  in  the  body  corresponding 
to  the  stores  of  phosphorus  and  calcium  in  the  bones.  Hence  if 
the  food  fails  to  furnish  as  much  iron  as  is  expended  in  the  nutri- 
tive processes  and  excreted  by  the  body,  there  must  soon  result  a 
diminution  of  hemoglobin  which  if  allowed  to  continue  is  marked 
by  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  anaemia.  Thus  although  only 
small  amounts  of  iron  are  contained  in  the  food  or  involved  in 
the  nutritive  processes,  its  function  as  a  building  material  for 


PRINCIPAL  CONSTITUENTS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  FOOD      21 

the  red  blood  cells  is  conspicuously  important.  Iron  salts  and 
other  simple  compounds  of  iron  have  long  been  used  medicinally 
in  the  treatment  of  anaemia  and  it  has  often  been  held  that  the 
iron  so  used  must  enter  directly  into  the  construction  of  hemo- 
globin, but  very  extensive  investigation  indicates  that  this  is 
not  the  case.  The  inorganic  or  medicinal  iron  appears  to  act 
as  a  stimulus  to  the  blood-forming  organs  while  the  actual 
material  from  which  the  hemoglobin  is  made  appears  to  be  the 
iron-protein  compounds  of  the  food. 

With  our  present  knowledge  we  must  look  to  the  food  and  not 
to  medicines  or  mineral  waters  for  the  supply  of  iron  needed  in 
normal  nutrition  and  since  freely  chosen  food  does  not  always 
furnish  enough  iron  to  meet  satisfactorily  the  requirements  of 
the  body  it  follows  that  the  iron  content  is  a  factor  of  some 
importance  in  the  consideration  of  food  values. 

Summary  of  the  Functions  of  Food 

Much  the  largest  part  of  the  total  solids  of  the  food  is  burned 
in  the  body  and  yields  energy  for  the  support  of  its  activities. 
Even  during  growth  most  of  the  fat  and  carbohydrate  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  protein  is  so  used. 

Part  of  the  protein  of  the  food  is  used  as  a  source  of  body 
protein,  or,  as  it  is  often  expressed,  is  used  to  build  tissue. 
Several  elements  not  contained  in  most  proteins  are  also  essen- 
tial to  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  these  are  derived  from  the 
so-called  ash  constituents  of  the  food.  The  calcium  and  phos- 
phorus of  the  bones,  the  potassium  and  phosphorus  of  the  soft 
tissues,  the  iron  of  the  red  blood  cells  are  just  as  necessary 
*'  building  materials  "  as  are  the  proteins,  though  the  amounts 
required  are  much  smaller. 

Upon  the  presence  in  the  body  of  salts  derived  from  the  food, 
either  directly  or  as  the  result  of  its  oxidation  in  the  tissues, 
depend  such  important  properties  and  processes  as  the  solvent 
power  and  osmotic  pressure  of  the  body  fluids,  the  elasticity  of 


22  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  muscles,  the  maintenance  of  the  normal  neutrality  or  slight 
alkalescence  of  the  blood  and  tissues.^ 

These  latter  functions,  and  many  others  which  might  be  men- 
tioned as  primarily  dependent  upon  water  and  the  salts,  are 
hardly  suggested  by  the  phrase  "  tissue  building,"  since  they 
have  to  do  not  so  much  with  the  actual  construction  or  repair  of 
the  tissues  as  with  the  regulation  of  the  processes  on  which  the 
nutrition  of  the  body  depends. 

It  may  therefore  be  said  that  the  functions  of  food  are 

(i)  to  yield  energy 

(2)  to  build  tissue 

(3)  to  regulate  body  processes. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  any  given  food  substance  can  be 
assigned  once  for  all  to  some  one  of  these  three  general  functions. 
Thus  the  protein  digestion  products  may  serve  both  to  build 
tissue  and  to  yield  energy ;  phosphates  may  serve  both  to  build 
tissue  and  to  assist  in  regulating  the  neutrality  of  the  blood  and 
tissues. 

Moreover,  it  has  very  recently  been  established  that  certain 
important  functions  are  performed  by  food  constituents  hitherto 
unknown  and  of  which  the  amounts  involved  are  so  small  that 
the  chemical  nature  of  the  substances  has  not  yet  been  fully 
established.  Some  of  these  substances  appear  to  be  nitrogen 
compounds  and  have  received  the  group  name  vitamines.  In 
other  cases  the  active  constituent  has  been  described  as  a 
lipoid,  that  is,  a  fatlike  substance.  These  little  known,  but 
apparently  very  significant,  food  constituents  will  receive  fur- 
ther attention  in  the  chapters  which  deal  specifically  with  the 
different  types  of  food. 

'The  normal  condition  of  the  blood  and  tissues  is  described  either  as  neutral 
or  as  slightly  alkaline,  according  to  the  definition  of  neutrality  used. 


PRINCIPAL  CONSTITUENTS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  FOOD      23 

REFERENCES 

Armstrong.     The  Simple  Carbohydrates  and  the  Glucosides. 

Atwater.  Methods  and  Results  of  Investigations  on  the  Chemistry  and 
Economy  of  Food. 

Chittenden.     The  Nutrition  of  Man. 

Dakin.     Oxidations  and  Reductions  in  the  Animal  Body. 

Glikin.     Chemie  der  Fette,  Lipoide,  und  Wachsarten. 

Howell.     Textbook  of  Physiology. 

Leathes.    The  Fats. 

Lewkowitsch.     Chemical  Technology  and  Analysis  of  Oils,  Fats  and  Waxes. 

LusK.     Elements  of  the  Science  of  Nutrition. 

Osborne.     The  Vegetable  Proteins. 

Osborne  and  Mendel.  Feeding  Experiments  with  Isolated  Food  Sub- 
stances. 

Plimmer.     The  Chemical  Constitution  of  the  Proteins. 

Rose.     Laboratory  Handbook  for  Dietetics. 

Sherman.     Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition. 

Stiles.     Nutritional  Physiology. 

Von  Noorden.    Metabolism  and  Practical  Medicine,  Vol.  I.    Physiology. 


CHAPTER  n 
FOOD   LEGISLATION 

Principles  of  Food  Legislation 

Food  is  more  nearly  a  fixed  requirement  than  most  other 
necessities  of  hfe.  The  smaller  the  income  the  larger  the  per- 
centage of  it  which  must  be  spent  for  food.  For  the  majority 
of  the  people  it  is  approximately  true  that  "  half  the  struggle  of 
life  is  a  struggle  for  food."  In  this  chapter  we  have  to  consider 
in  a  general  way  the  necessity  for  legal  control  of  the  food 
industry  and  the  chief  features  of  the  pure  food  laws. 

At  the  present  time,  more  than  half  the  total  value  of  natural 
products  of  the  United  States  is  represented  by  the  food  prod- 
ucts whose  annual  value  is  about  twice  that  of  all  other  farm 
products  and  over  twice  that  of  the  combined  products  of  the 
mines  and  forests. 

The  products  of  the  mines  and  forests  may  be  subjected  to 
more  elaborate  processes  of  manufacture  and  so  may  be  in- 
creased in  value  in  greater  ratio  before  reaching  the  consumer 
than  are  the  food  products ;  but  even  so  we  find  from  the  census 
returns  that  in  value  of  finished  as  well  as  of  natural  products 
the  food  industries  lead  all  others.  Among  the  manufactures 
as  classified  by  the  United  States  Census,  the  greatest  is  that 
of  slaughtering  and  meat  packing.  The  annual  product  of  the 
meat  packing  establishments  exceeds  in  value  that  of  the  foun- 
dries and  machine  shops.  The  product  of  the  flour  and  grist 
mills  is  about  equal  in  value  to  that  of  either  the  rolling  mills, 
the  lumber  mills,  or  the  cotton  mills  of  the  country. 

The  enormous  size  to  which  many  of  the  food  manufacturing 

24 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  25 

establishments  have  grown  during  recent  years  (as  for  example 
a  sugar  refinery  turning  out  daily  from  1,000,000  to  3,000,000 
pounds  of  sugar,  or  a  butter  factory  producing  25,000  pounds  of 
butter  per  day)  makes  it  possible  to  effect  great  economies  or 
make  great  advances,  through  what  are  apparently  quite 
modest  improvements  in  process  or  product.  Hence  the  food 
industries  are  rapidly  being  brought  under  chemical  control 
for  the  sake  of  economy  in  processes,  improvement  of  staple 
products,  and  advantageous  utilization  of  by-products. 

Scientific  control  of  the  food  industries  has  also  been  greatly 
stimulated  in  recent  years  by  the  rapidly  growing  tendency  of 
consumers  to  fix  requirements  for  food  supplies  through  legis- 
lation. 

With  the  development  of  modern  industry  population  has 
concentrated  in  cities  and  towns  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
majority  of  people  have  ceased  to  produce  any  appreciable  part 
of  their  own  food  or  even  to  obtain  it  from  their  immediate 
neighbors.  Most  people  must  buy  practically  all  of  their 
food,  and  the  food  is  brought  from  greater  and  greater  distances 
and  distributed  under  conditions  which  make  it  increasingly 
difficult  for  the  consumer  to  exercise  any  direct  individual  con- 
trol over  the  methods  by  which  his  food  is  produced  and  handled. 
When  the  majority  of  the  people  in  any  community  find  them- 
selves in  this  position,  they  naturally  tend  to  substitute  for  the 
individual  control  which  is  no  longer  feasible  a  collective  control 
of  their  food  supplies  through  legislation  and  official  inspection. 

In  the  United  States  the  legal  regulation  of  the  food  industry 
is  accomplished  partly  through  the  Federal  Government  by 
virtue  of  its  constitutional  power  to  regulate  commerce  with 
foreign  nations  and  among  the  several  states;  and  partly 
through  the  police  power  inherent  in  the  state  (and  often  dele- 
gated in  large  measure  to  the  city)  to  pass  such  laws  and  pro- 
vide such  regulations  as  are  necessary  to  protect  its  citizens  in 
their  rights  as  to  health,  morals,  and  property. 


26  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Many  communities  had  laws  or  ordinances  for  the  prevention 
of  milk  adulteration  long  before  making  any  attempt  at  general 
regulation  of  the  entire  food  supply. 

General  food  legislation  was  enacted  and  systematic  inspec- 
tion of  food  of  all  kinds  was  begun  in  Massachusetts  about 
thirty  years  ago.  Legislation  of  this  character  spread  gradually, 
and  in  1905  about  half  of  the  states  had  general  food  laws. 
The  National  law  for  prevention  of  adulteration  or  misbranding 
of  foods  or  drugs  was  passed  in  1906,  and  went  in  effect  January  i, 
1907.  This  stimulated  further  state  legislation  with  the  result 
that  now  nearly  every  state  has  a  general  food  law  and  is  making 
an  attempt  at  its  enforcement. 

Thus  the  people,  while  no  longer  able  to  produce  their  own  food 
or  buy  it  of  neighbors  who  have  produced  it  under  known 
conditions,  may  still  through  legislation  seek  to  insure  that  the 
food  they  buy  shall  be : 

(i)  What  it  purports  to  be,  in  kind  and  amount ; 

(2)  Free  from  deterioration  or  unwholesome  additions; 

(3)  Possessed  of  full  nutritive  value. 

Most  of  our  food  laws  take  the  form  of  prescribing  what 
the  food  shall  not  be  rather  than  what  it  shall  be ;  and  these 
prohibitions  are  usually  classified  under  the  two  heads  of  adul- 
teration and  misbranding. 

Anything  which  makes  a  food  unwholesome  or  lowers  its  nutri- 
tive value  is  usually  considered  adulteration;  while  to  offer 
a  food  under  false  or  misleading  claims  as  to  its  source,  kind, 
quality,  or  amount  is  usually  called  misbranding. 

In  view  of  the  diversity  of  methods  used  in  handling  different 
kinds  of  foods,  and  the  constant  changing  of  methods  to  keep 
abreast  of  scientific  developments  and  economic  conditions,  it 
is  plain  that  there  will  often  be  room  for  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  whether  or  not  a  given  trade  practice  shall  be  held  to  be 
adulteration  or  misbranding. 

The  attempt  to  settle  such  questions  in  advance  by  writing 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  2^ 

detailed  specifications  into  the  law  itself,  may  defeat  its  own 
purpose,  since  in  general  the  more  specific  the  wording  of  the 
law,  the  more  literally  (and  hence  narrowly)  it  must  be  con- 
strued. Thus  in  the  Pennsylvania  Food  Act  of  May  13,  1909, 
the  addition  of  alum  to  food  is  prohibited ;  but  it  was  held  by 
the  courts  that  the  word  alum  as  used  in  the  law  means  only 
potassium  aluminum  sulphate  and  not  sodium  aluminum  sul- 
phate nor  simple  sulphate  of  aluminum.  The  latter,  being 
cheaper,  are  commonly  used  in  the  making  of  "  alum  "  baking 
powders  and  for  preserving  the  crispiness  of  pickles,  and  the 
introduction  of  aluminum  into  the  food  in  these  two  ways  is 
therefore  allowed  to  continue,  although  it  was  for  the  express 
purpose  of  preventing  this  that  the  word  alum  was  included  in 
the  list  of  forbidden  substances  in  the  law. 

The  Federal  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  June  30,  1906,  commonly 
known  as  "  The  Pure  Food  Law,"  and  on  which  subsequent 
legislation  by  most  of  the  states  has  been  largely  based,  defines 
the  main  types  of  adulteration  and  misbranding,  but,  except  in 
the  case  of  confectionery  and  of  habit-forming  drugs,  does  not 
name  the  specific  substances  which  are  to  be  prohibited  or 
restricted  in  use,  nor  does  the  law  itself  contain  standards  of 
composition  for  foods. 

According  to  this  law  a  food  is  deemed  adulterated : 
(i)  If  any  substance  has  been  mixed  or  packed  with  it  so  as 
to  reduce  or  lower  or  injuriously  affect  its  quality  or  strength, 

(2)  If  any  substance  has  been  substituted,  wholly  or  in  part. 

(3)  If  any  valuable  constituent  has  been  wholly  or  in  part 
abstracted. 

(4)  If  it  be  mixed,  colored,  coated,  powdered,  or  stained  in  a 
manner  whereby  damage  or  inferiority  is  concealed. 

(5)  If  it  contain  any  added  poisonous  or  other  added  dele- 
terious ingredient  which  may  render  it  injurious  to  health. 

(6)  If  it  consists  in  whole  or  in  part  of  a  filthy,  decomposed, 
or  putrid  animal  or  vegetable  substance,  or  any  portion  of  an 


28  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

animal  unfit  for  food,  or  if  it  be  the  product  of  a  diseased  animal, 
or  one  that  has  died  otherwise  than  by  slaughter. 

And  a  food  is  deemed  to  be  misbrafided: 

(i)  If  it  be  an  imitation  of  or  offered  for  sale  under  the  dis- 
tinctive name  of  another  article. 

(2)  If  it  be  labeled  or  branded  so  as  to  deceive  or  mislead  the 
purchaser,  or  purport  to  be  a  foreign  product  when  not  so,  or  if 
the  contents  shall  have  been  substituted  in  whole  or  in  part,  or 
if  it  fail  to  bear  a  statement  on  the  label  of  the  quantity  or  pro- 
portion of  any  narcotic  or  habit-forming  drug  which  it  contains. 

(3)  If,  when  sold  in  package  form  it  fails  to  bear  a  correct 
statement  of  weight,  measure,  or  numerical  count  of  its  con- 
tents ;  provision  being  made  for  reasonable  variations  and 
for  certain  exemptions. 

(4)  If  the  package  containing  it  or  its  label  shall  bear  any 
statement,  design,  or  device  which  is  false  or  misleading  in  any 
particular. 

The  exact  wording  of  the  definitions  and  the  corresponding 
definitions  of  adulteration  and  misbranding  as  applied  to  con- 
fectionery and  drugs  may  be  seen  by  consulting  the  text  of  the 
law  which  is  quoted  in  full  below. 

The  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  June  30,  1906,  as  Amended  August  23,  1912 

AN  ACT  For  preventing  the  manufacture,  sale,  or  transportation  of  adul- 
terated or  misbranded  or  poisonous  or  deleterious  foods,  drugs,  medicines, 
and  liquors,  and  for  regulating  traffic  therein,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person 
to  manufacture  within  any  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  any  article 
of  food  or  drug  which  is  adulterated  or  misbranded,  within  the  meaning  of 
this  Act;  and  any  person  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this 
section  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  for  each  ofifense  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  be  fined  not  to  exceed  five  hundred  dollars  or  shall  be 
sentenced  to  one  year's  imprisonment,  or  both  such"  fine  and  imprisonment, 
in  the  discretion  of  the  court,  and  for  each  subsequent  offense  and  conviction 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  29 

thereof  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  one  thousand  dollars  or  sentenced  to 
one  year's  imprisonment,  or  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  court. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  introduction  into  any  State  or  Territory  or  the  District 
of  Columbia  from  any  other  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia, 
or  from  any  foreign  country,  or  shipment  to  any  foreign  country  of  any 
article  of  food  or  drugs  which  is  adulterated  or  misbranded,  within  the  mean- 
ing of  this  Act,  is  hereby  prohibited ;  and  any  person  who  shall  ship  or  deliver 
for  shipment  from  any  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  any 
other  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  to  a  foreign  country, 
or  who  shall  receive  in  any  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia 
from  any  other  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  foreign 
country,  and  having  so  received,  shall  deliver,  in  original  unbroken  packages, 
for  pay  or  otherwise,  or  offer  to  deliver  to  any  other  person,  any  such  article 
so  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act,  or  any  person 
who  shall  sell  or  offer  for  sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  Territories 
of  the  United  States  any  such  adulterated  or  misbranded  foods  or  drugs, 
or  export  or  offer  to  export  the  same  to  any  foreign  country,  shall  be  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  and  for  such  offense  be  fined  not  exceeding  two  hundred 
dollars  for  the  first  offense,  and  upon  conviction  for  each  subsequent  offense 
not  exceeding  three  hundred  dollars  or  be  imprisoned  not  exceeding  one 
year,  or  both,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court :  Provided,  That  no  article  shall 
be  deemed  misbranded  or  adulterated  within  the  provisions  of  this  Act 
when  intended  for  export  to  any  foreign  country  and  prepared  or  packed 
according  to  the  specifications  or  directions  of  the  foreign  purchaser  when 
no  substance  is  used  in  the  preparation  or  packing  thereof  in  conflict  with 
the  laws  of  the  foreign  country  to  which  said  article  is  intended  to  be  shipped ; 
but  if  said  article  shall  be  in  fact  sold  or  offered  for  sale  for  domestic  use  or 
consumption,  then  this  proviso  shall  not  exempt  said  article  from  the  opera- 
tion of  any  of  the  other  provisions  of  this  Act. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
and  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor  shall  make  uniform  rules  and 
regulations  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  including  the  collec- 
tion and  examination  of  specimens  of  foods  and  drugs  manufactured  or 
offered  for  sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  in  any  Territory  of  the  United 
States,  or  which  shall  be  offered  for  sale  in  unbroken  packages  in  any  State 
other  than  that  in  which  they  shall  have  been  respectively  manufactured  or 
produced,  or  which  shall  be  received  from  any  foreign  country,  or  intended 
for  shipment  to  any  foreign  country,  or  which  may  be  submitted  for  ex- 
amination by  the  chief  health,  food,  or  drug  officer  of  any  State,  Territory, 
or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  at  any  domestic  or  foreign  port  through 


30  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

which  such  product  is  offered  for  interstate  commerce,  or  for  export  or 
import  between  the  United  States  and  any  foreign  port  or  country. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  examinations  of  specimens  of  foods  and  drugs  shall 
be  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
or  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  such  Bureau,  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  from  such  examinations  whether  such  articles  are  adulterated 
or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act ;  and  if  it  shall  appear  from 
any  such  examination  that  any  of  such  specimens  is  adulterated  or  mis- 
branded  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act,  the  Secretar>'  of  Agriculture  shall 
cause  notice  thereof  to  be  given  to  the  party  from  whom  such  sample  was 
obtained.  Any  party  so  notified  shall  be  given  an  opportunity  to  be  heard, 
under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  as  aforesaid,  and  if 
it  appears  that  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  Act  have  been  violated  by  such 
party,  then  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  at  once  certify  the  facts  to 
the  proper  United  States  district  attorney,  with  a  copy  of  the  results  of  the 
analysis  or  the  examination  of  such  article  duly  authenticated  by  the  analyst 
or  officer  making  such  examination,  under  the  oath  of  such  officer.  After 
judgment  of  the  court,  notice  shall  be  given  by  publication  in  such  manner 
as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  rules  and  regulations  aforesaid. 

Sec.  5.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  district  attorney  to  whom  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  report  any  violation  of  this  Act,  or  to  whom  any 
health  or  food  or  drug  officer  or  agent  of  any  State,  Territory,  or  the  District 
of  Columbia  shall  present  satisfactory  evidence  of  any  such  violation,  to 
cause  appropriate  proceedings  to  be  commenced  and  prosecuted  in  the  proper 
courts  of  the  United  States,  without  delay,  for  the  enforcement  of  the 
penalties  as  in  such  case  herein  provided. 

Sec.  6.  That  the  term  "  drug  "  as  used  in  this  Act,  shall  include  all 
medicines  and  preparations  recognized  in  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia 
or  National  Formulary  for  internal  or  external  use,  and  any  substance  or 
mixture  of  substances  intended  to  be  used  for  the  cure,  mitigation,  or  pre- 
vention of  disease  of  either  man  or  other  animals.  The  term  "  food,"  as 
used  herein,  shall  include  aU  articles  used  for  food,  drink,  confectionery,  or 
condiment  by  man  or  other  animals,  whether  simple,  mixed,  or  compound. 

Sec.  7.  That  for  the  purposes  of  this  Act  an  article  shall  be  deemed  to 
be  adulterated : 

In  case  of  drugs : 

First.  If,  when  a  drug  is  sold  under  or  by  a  name  recognized  in  the  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary,  it  differs  from  the  standard 
of  strength,  quality,  or  purity,  as  determined  by  the  test  laid  down  in  the 
United  States  Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary  official  at  the  time  of 
investigation :  Provided,  That  no  drug  defined  in  the  United  States  Pharma- 


FOOD  LEGISLATION  31 

copceia  or  National  Formulary  shall  be  deemed  to  be  adulterated  under 
this  provision  if  the  standard  of  strength,  quality,  or  purity  be  plainly  stated 
upon  the  bottle,  box,  or  other  container  thereof  although  the  standard  may 
differ  from  that  determined  by  the  test  laid  down  in  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary. 

Second.  If  its  strength  or  purity  fall  below  the  professed  standard  or 
quality  under  which  it  is  sold. 

In  the  case  of  confectionery : 

If  it  contain  terra  alba,  barytes,  talc,  chrome  yellow,  or  other  mineral 
substance  or  poisonous  color  or  flavor,  or  other  ingredient  deleterious  or 
detrimental  to  health,  or  any  vinous,  malt,  or  spirituous  liquor  or  compound 
or  narcotic  drug. 

In  the  case  of  food  : 

First.  If  any  substance  has  been  mixed  and  packed  with  it  so  as  to  reduce 
or  lower  or  injuriously  affect  its  quality  or  strength. 

Second.  If  any  substance  has  been  substituted  wholly  or  in  part  for  the 
article. 

Third.  If  any  valuable  constituent  of  the  article  has  been  wholly  or  in 
part  abstracted. 

Fourth.  If  it  be  mixed,  colored,  powdered,  coated,  or  stained  in  a  manner 
whereby  damage  or  inferiority  is  concealed. 

Fifth.  If  it  contain  any  added  poisonous  or  other  added  deleterious  in- 
gredient which  may  render  such  article  injurious  to  health :  Provided, 
That  when  in  the  preparation  of  food  products  for  shipnicnt  they  are 
preserved  by  any  external  application  applied  in  such  manner  that  the 
preservative  is  necessarily  removed  mechanically,  or  by  maceration  in 
water,  or  otherwise,  and  directions  for  the  removal  of  said  preservative 
shall  be  printed  on  the  covering  or  the  pacliage,  the  provisions  of  this  Act 
shall  be  construed  as  applying  only  when  said  products  are  ready  for  con- 
sumption. 

Sixth.  If  it  consists  in  whole  or  in  part  of  a  filthy,  decomposed,  or  putrid 
animal  or  vegetable  substance,  or  any  portion  of  an  animal  unfit  for  food, 
whether  manufactured  or  not,  or  'A  it  is  the  product  of  a  diseased  animal, 
or  one  that  has  died  otherwise  than  by  slaughter. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  term  "  misbranded,"  as  used  herein,  shall  apply  to  all 
drugs,  or  articles  of  food,  or  articles  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
food,  the  package  or  label  of  which  shall  bear  any  statement,  design,  or 
device  regarding  such  article,  or  the  ingredients  or  substances  contained 
therein  which  shall  be  false  or  misleading  in  any  particular,  and  to  any  food 
or  drug  product  which  is  falsely  branded  as  to  the  State,  Territory,  or  country 
in  which  it  is  manufactured  or  produced. 


32  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

That  for  the  purposes  of  this  Act  an  article  shall  also  be  deemed  to  be 
misbranded : 

In  case  of  drugs : 

First.  If  it  be  an  imitation  of  or  offered  for  sale  under  the  name  of  another 
article. 

Second.  If  the  contents  of  the  package  as  originally  put  up  shall  have 
been  removed,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  other  contents  shall  have  been 
placed  in  such  package,  or  if  the  package  fail  to  bear  a  statement  on  the 
label  of  the  quantity  or  proportion  of  any  alcohol,  morphine,  opium,  cocaine, 
heroin,  alpha  or  beta  eucaine,  chloroform,  cannabis  indica,  chloral  hydrate, 
or  acetanilide,  or  any  derivative  or  preparation  of  any  such  substances 
contained  therein. 

Third.  If  its  package  or  label  shall  bear  or  contain  any  statement,  design, 
or  device  regarding  the  curative  or  therapeutic  effect  of  such  article  or  any  of 
the  ingredients  or  substances  contained  therein,  which  is  false  and  fraudulent. 

In  the  case  of  food : 

First.  If  it  be  an  imitation  of  or  offered  for  sale  under  the  distinctive 
name  of  another  article. 

Second.  If  it  be  labeled  or  branded  so  as  to  deceive  or  mislead  the  pur- 
chaser, or  purport  to  be  a  foreign  product  when  not  so,  or  if  the  contents  of 
the  package  as  originally  put  up  shall  have  been  removed  in  whole  or  in 
part  and  other  contents  shall  have  been  placed  in  such  package,  or  if  it 
fail  to  bear  a  statement  on  the  label  of  the  quantity  or  proportion  of  any 
morphine,  opium,  cocaine,  heroin,  alpha  or  beta  eucaine,  chloroform,  canna- 
bis indica,  chloral  hydrate,  or  acetanilide,  or  any  derivative  or  preparation 
of  any  of  such  substances  contained  therein. 

Third.i  If  in  package  form,  the  quantity  of  the  contents  be  not  plainly 
and  conspicuously  marked  on  the  outside  of  the  package  in  terms  of  weight, 
measure,  or  numerical  count :  Provided,  however,  That  reasonable  variations 
shall  be  permitted,  and  tolerances  and  also  exemptions  as  to  small  packages 
shall  be  established  by  rules  and  regulations  made  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  section  three  of  this  Act. 

Fourth.  If  the  package  containing  it  or  its  label  shall  bear  any  statement, 
design,  or  device  regarding  the  ingredients  or  the  substances  contained 
therein,  which  statement,  design,  or  device  shall  be  false  or  misleading  in 
any  particular :  Provided,  That  an  article  of  food  which  does  not  contain 
any  added  poisonous  or  deleterious  ingredients  shall  not  be  deemed  to  be 
adulterated  or  misbranded  in  the  following  cases : 

'  The  act  of  March  3,  igi3,  provides  that  no  oenalty  of  fine,  imprisonment,  or 
confiscation  shall  be  enforced  for  any  violation  of  its  provisions  as  to  domestic  products 
prepared  or  foreign  products  imported  prior  to  eighteen  months  after  its  passage. 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  33 

First.  In  the  case  of  mixtures  or  compounds  which  may  be  now  or  from 
time  to  time  hereafter  known  as  articles  of  food,  under  their  own  distinctive 
names,  and  not  an  imitation  of  or  offered  for  sale  under  the  distinctive  name 
of  another  article,  if  the  name  be  accompanied  on  the  same  label  or  brand  with 
a  statement  of  the  place  where  said  article  has  been  manufactured  or  pro- 
duced. 

Second.  In  the  case  of  articles  labeled,  branded,  or  tagged  so  as  to  plainly 
indicate  that  they  are  compounds,  imitations,  or  blends,  and  the  word 
"  compound,"  "  imitation,"  or  "  blend,"  as  the  case  may  be,  is  plainly 
stated  on  the  package  in  which  it  is  offered  for  sale :  Provided,  That  the 
term  blend  as  used  herein  shall  be  construed  to  mean  a  mixture  of  like  sub- 
stances, not  excluding  harmless  coloring  or  flavoring  ingredients  used  for 
the  purpose  of  coloring  and  flavoring  only :  And  provided  further,  That 
nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  as  requiring  or  compelling  proprietors 
or  manufacturers  of  proprietary  foods  which  contain  no  unwholesome  added 
ingredient  to  disclose  their  trade  formulas,  except  in  so  far  as  the  provisions 
of  this  act  may  require  to  secure  freedom  from  adulteration  or  misbranding. 

Sec.  9.  That  no  dealer  shall  be  prosecuted  under  the  provisions  of  this 
Act  when  he  can  establish  a  guaranty  signed  by  the  wholesaler,  jobber, 
manufacturer,  or  other  party  residing  in  the  United  States,  from  whom  he 
purchases  such  articles,  to  the  effect  that  the  same  is  not  adulterated  or 
misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act,  designating  it.  Said  guaranty, 
to  afford  protection,  shall  contain  the  name  and  address  of  the  party  or 
parties  making  the  sale  of  such  articles  to  such  dealer,  and  in  such  case  said 
party  or  parties  shall  be  amenable  to  the  prosecutions,  fines  and  other 
penalties  which  would  attach,  in  due  course,  to  the  dealer  under  the  provisions 
of  this  Act. 

Sec.  id.  That  any  article  of  food,  drug,  or  liquor  that  is  adulterated  or 
misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act,  and  is  being  transported  from 
one  State,  Territory,  District,  or  insular  possession  to  another  for  sale,  or, 
having  been  transported,  remains  unloaded,  unsold,  or  in  original  unbroken 
packages,  or  if  it  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  the 
Territories,  or  insular  possessions  of  the  United  States,  or  if  it  be  imported 
from  a  foreign  country  for  sale,  or  if  it  is  intended  for  explort  to  a  foreign 
country,  shall  be  liable  to  be  proceeded  against  in  any  district  court  of  the 
United  States  within  the  district  where  the  same  is  found,  and  seized  for 
confiscation  by  a  process  of  libel  for  condemnation.  And  if  such  article  is 
condemned  as  being  adulterated  or  misbranded,  or  of  a  poisonous  or  dele- 
terious character,  within  the  meaning  of  this  Act,  the  same  shall  be  disposed 
of  by  destruction  or  sale,  as  the  said  court  may  direct,  and  the  proceeds 
thereof,  if  sold,  less  the  legal  costs  and  charges,  shall  be  paid  into  the  Treasury 

D 


34  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

of  the  United  States,  but  such  goods  shall  not  be  sold  in  any  jurisdiction 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  Act  or  the  laws  of  that  jurisdiction  :  Pro- 
vided, however,  That  upon  the  payment  of  the  costs  of  such  libel  proceedings 
and  the  execution  and  delivery  of  a  good  and  sufficient  bond  to  the  effect 
that  such  articles  shall  not  be  sold  or  otherwise  disposed  of  contrary  to  the 
provisions  of  this  Act,  or  the  laws  of  any  State,  Territory,  District,  or  insular 
possession,  the  court  may  by  order  direct  that  such  articlesbe  delivered  to 
the  owner  thereof.  The  proceedings  of  such  libel  cases  shall  conform,  as 
near  as  may  be,  to  the  proceedings  in  admiralty,  except  that  either  party 
may  demand  trial  by  jury  of  any  issue  of  fact  joined  in  any  such  case,  and 
all  such  proceedings  shall  be  at  the  suit  of  and  in  the  name  of  the  United 
States. 

Sec.  II.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  deliver  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  upon  his  request  from  time  to  time,  samples  of  foods  and  drugs 
which  are  being  imported  into  the  United  States  or  offered  for  import,  giving 
notice  thereof  to  the  owner  or  consignee,  who  may  appear  before  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  and  have  the  right  to  introduce  testimony,  and  if  it 
appear  from  the  e.xamination  of  such  samples  that  any  article  of  food  or  drug 
offered  to  be  imported  into  the  United  States  is  adulterated  or  misbranded 
within  the  meaning  of  this  Act,  or  is  otherwise  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  or  is  of  a  kind  forbidden  entry  into,  or  forbidden 
to  be  sold  or  restricted  in  sale  in  the  country  in  which  it  is  made  or  from  which 
it  is  exported,  or  is  otherwise  falsely  labeled  in  any  respect,  the  said  article 
shall  be  refused  admission,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall  refuse 
delivery  to  the  consignee  and  shall  cause  the  destruction  of  any  goods  re- 
fused delivery  which  shall  not  be  exported  by  the  consignee  within  three 
months  from  the  date  of  notice  of  such  refusal  under  such  regulations  as 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  prescribe  :  Provided,  That  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  may  deliver  to  the  consignee  such  goods  pending  examina- 
tion and  decision  in  the  matter  on  execution  of  a  penal  bond  for  the  amount 
of  the  full  invoice  value  of  such  goods,  together  with  the  duty  thereon,  and 
on  refusal  to  return  such  goods  for  any  cause  to  the  custody  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  when  demanded,  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  them 
from  the  country,  or  for  any  other  purpose,  said  consignee  shall  forfeit  the 
full  amount  of  the  bond :  Afid  provided  further,  That  all  charges  for  storage, 
cartage,  and  labor  on  goods  which  are  refused  admission  or  dehvery  shall 
be  paid  by  the  owner  or  consignee,  and  in  default  of  such  payment  shall 
constitute  a  lien  against  any  future  importation  made  by  such  owner  or 
consignee. 

Sec.  12.  That  the  term  "  Territory  "  as  used  in  this  Act  shall  include 
the  insular  possessions  of  the  United  States.    The  word  "  person  "  as  used 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  35 

in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  to  import  both  the  plural  and  the  singular, 
as  the  case  demands,  and  shall  include  corporations,  companies,  societies 
and  associations.  When  construing  and  enforcing  the  provisions  of  this 
Act,  the  act,  omission,  or  failure  of  any  officer,  agent,  or  other  person  acting 
for  or  employed  by  any  corporation,  company,  society,  or  association,  within 
the  scope  of  his  employment  or  office,  shall  in  every  case  be  also  deemed  to 
be  the  act,  omission,  or  failure  of  such  corporation,  company,  society,  or 
association  as  well  as  that  of  the  person. 

Sec.  13.  That  this  Act  shall  be  in  force  and  effect  from  and  after  the 
first  day  of  January,  nineteen  hundred  and  seven. 

Approved  June  30,  1906. 


Notes  on  the  National  Law  and  the  Rules  and  Regulations  for 
its  Enforcement 

Since  in  the  chapters  which  follow  there  will  frequently  be 
occasion  to  refer  to  decisions  which  have  been  rendered  or  stand- 
ards which  have  been  established  under  the  National  law,  it 
will  be  advantageous  at  this  point  to  refer  to  some  of  its  more 
prominent  features  and  to  the  provisions  for  its  interpretation 
and  enforcement. 

Scope  and  penalties.  On  account  of  the  limitations  placed 
by  the  Constitution  upon  Federal  legislation  of  this  sort,  the 
law  can  directly  prohibit  the  manufacture  of  adulterated  or 
misbranded  food  only  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  Ter- 
ritories. Indirectly,  however,  the  manufacture  of  such  food  on 
a  large  scale  anywhere  in  the  country  can  be  made  difficult  if 
not  impracticable  through  the  control  of  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce.  Food  manufactured  and  sold  exclusively  within  the 
borders  of  any  one  state  is  subject  only  to  state  or  municipal 
control,  but  any  lot  or  package  of  food  which  passes  from  one 
state  to  another  is  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  National  law. 
Moreover,  in  all  such  interstate  transactions  in  food  products 
both  the  consignor  and  the  consignee  are  liable  unless  one  of 
them  assumes  complete  liability  under  the  provisions  of  Sec- 
tion 9.     Often  a  shipment  of  food  is  seized  and  the  prosecution 


36  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

is  brought  against  the  goods,  the  interested  parties  being  given 
opportunity  to  appear  as  claimants  and  answer  the  charge  of 
adulteration  or  misbranding. 

The  first  case  under  the  law  which  was  carried  through  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  related  to  the  powers  of  the  Government  under  this 
section.  Preserved  eggs  were  shipped  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to  Peoria,  111. 
They  were  intended  not  for  sale  (as  such)  but  for  use  in  baking  and  were 
placed  in  the  storeroom  of  the  bakery  along  with  other  supplies.  The  Gov- 
ernment seized  the  eggs  as  adulterated  food  in  interstate  commerce;  the 
egg  company  which  had  prepared  them  appeared  as  claimant  and  defended 
the  suit  but  did  not  enter  into  a  stipulation  to  pay  costs.  The  case  was 
tried  in  the  United  States  District  Court  which  found  the  eggs  adulterated 
within  the  meaning  of  the  act  in  that  they  contained  about  2  per  cent  of 
boric  acid  which  the  court  held  to  be  a  deleterious  ingredient.  The  egg 
company  contested  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court,  claiming  (i)  that  the  law 
does  not  apply  to  an  article  which  has  been  shipped  not  for  sale  but  solely 
for  use  as  a  raw  material  in  the  manufacture  of  some  other  product,  (2)  that 
the  United  States  District  Court  had  no  jurisdiction  because  the  goods  had 
passed  out  of  interstate  commerce  and  become  mingled  in  the  general  mass 
of  the  property  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  and  (3)  that  the  Court  had  no  juris- 
diction to  enter  a  personal  judgment  against  the  egg  company  for  costs. 
The  Supreme  Court  found  the  position  of  the  egg  company  untenable  on 
each  of  these  points  and  stated  in  its  decision  upholding  the  Government 
that  the  adulterated  eggs  were  illicit  articles  which  could  not  acquire  im- 
munity by  becoming  a  part  of  the  general  mass  of  property  of  the  State  and 
that  the  confiscation  or  destruction  of  such  articles  is  the  especial  concern 
of  the  law. 

By  comparison  of  Sections  i  and  2,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
penalties  for  interstate  commerce  in  adulterated  or  misbranded 
foods  are  somewhat  less  severe  than  for  the  manufacture  of  such 
food  in  those  parts  of  the  country  which  are  under  the  direct 
jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Government. 

Rtiles  and  regulations.  Section  3  of  the  law  makes  it  the  duty 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
and  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  to  formulate  uniform  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  provisions  of  the  law. 
As  already  mentioned,  most  of  the  provisions  and  definitions  in 


FOOD  LEGISLATION  37 

the  law  are  general  in  character.  It  therefore  became  necessary 
for  the  three  Secretaries  in  the  Rules  and  Regulations,  not  only 
to  provide  a  plan  for  the  collection  and  examination  of  samples, 
but  also  to  interpret  many  of  the  definitions  of  adulteration  and 
misbranding. 

The  Rules  and  Regulations  adopted  by  the  Secretaries  are 
given  in  full  at  the  back  of  this  book  (Appendix  A). 

These  rules  and  regulations  are  of  course  subject  to  review 
by  the  Courts  and  they  do  not  have  the  force  and  effect  of  law 
except  in  so  far  as  they  interpret  the  law  correctly.  They  are, 
however,  of  great  importance  as  constituting  the  working  basis 
for  the  enforcement  of  the  law  and  will  be  frequently  referred  to 
in  the  discussions  which  follow. 

Food  inspection  decisions.  The  actual  administration  of  the 
law  and  of  the  rules  and  regulations  is  the  duty  of  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture.  Notwithstanding  the  adoption  of  the  Rules 
and  Regulations,  several  questions  of  interpretation  requiring 
decision  by  the  administrative  officers  have  arisen. 

These  decisions  are  published  from  the  Office  of  the  Secretary, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  a  series  of  num- 
bered leaflets  called  Food  Inspection  Decisions  (F.  I.  D.). 

A  few  of  these  decisions  have  been  signed  by  the  three  Secre- 
taries and  are  practically  amendments  of  the  Rules  and  Regu- 
lations. In  most  cases,  however,  the  "  decisions  "  are  simply 
declarations  of  the  attitude  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  are  signed  either  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  or  by  the 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection,  which  is  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  Secretary  from  among  the  officials  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  who  act  as  the  representatives 
of  the  Secretary  in  the  enforcement  of  the  food  law.  These 
decisions  of  the  administrative  officers  must  not  be  confused  with 
the  decisions  reached  by  the  courts.  The  latter  are  found  under 
Notices  of  Judgment  (see  below). 

Many  of  the  Food  Inspection  Decisions  will  be  quoted  in 


38  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

later  chapters  in  the  discussion  of  the  particular  types  of  food 
to  which  they  relate.  Those  of  more  general  scope  will  be  found 
at  the  back  of  this  book  (Appendix  B). 

Collection  of  samples.  Samples  are  collected  only  by  author- 
ized agents  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  or  by  some  health, 
food,  or  drug  officer  commissioned  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
for  this  purpose.  The  collectors  must  purchase  representative 
samples.  Samples  purchased  in  bulk  are  divided  into  three 
parts ;  when  in  the  original  unbroken  packages  three  such  pack- 
ages are  usually  taken.  One  of  the  three  samples  is  delivered 
to  the  chemist  or  examiner  and  two  are  held  under  seal  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  "  who,  upon  request,  shall  deliver  one 
of  such  samples  to  the  party  from  whom  purchased  or  to  the 
party  guaranteeing  such  merchandise."     (Regulation  3.) 

The  term  "  original  unbroken  package  "  as  used  in  the  law 
is  defined,  in  the  Rules  and  Regulations,  as  "  the  original  pack- 
age, carton,  case,  can,  box,  barrel,  bottle,  phial,  or  other  recep- 
tacle put  up  by  the  manufacturer,  to  which  the  label  is  attached, 
or  which  may  be  suitable  for  the  attachment  of  the  label  "  and 
it  is  held  that  the  original  package  contemplated  includes  both 
the  wholesale  and  the  retail  package. 

Examinations  or  analyses  of  samples  are  made  in  the  labo- 
ratories of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture or  under  its  direction  and  supervision.  Unless  other- 
wise directed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  foods  are  analyzed 
by  the  methods  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chem- 
ists, and  drugs  by  the  methods  of  the  United  States  Phar- 
macopoeia. 

Standards  of  purity.  The  Pharmacopoeia  gives  standards 
of  purity  for  drugs  along  with  the  methods  of  analysis.  The 
methods  of  analysis  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists  do  not  provide  corresponding  standards,  but  a  set  of 
standards  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  this  Association  was 
published  as  Circular  No.  19,  Office  of  the  Secretary,  United 


FOOD  LEGISLATION  39 

States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  these  are  usually,  though 
not  necessarily,  followed  in  interpreting  the  analytical  results. 
The  food  chemists  of  the  different  states  are  also  apt  to  govern 
their  decisions  by  these  standards  unless  some  other  standard 
is  provided  for  by  state  law. 

These  standards,  therefore,  carry  considerable  weight  and  will 
be  considered  in  connection  with  the  discussions  of  the  composi- 
tion of  food  materials  in  the  chapters  which  follow.  They  are 
variously  designated  as  "  United  States  Standards,"  "  Govern- 
ment Standards,"  "  Federal  Standards,"  "  Department  of 
Agriculture  Standards,"  or  "  A.  0.  A.  C.  Standards."  The 
latter  term  is  the  more  accurate  since  these  standards  for  foods, 
while  often  cited  in  Federal  prosecutions,  are  not  established  by 
law  nor  referred  to  in  the  Rules  and  Regulations,  but  represent 
the  action  only  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chem- 
ists (A.  O.  A.  C).  In  connection  with  the  Federal  law  and  the 
laws  of  many  states  the  force  of  these  standards  is  practically 
that  of  expert  testimony.  In  some  states  these  or  similar  stand- 
ards have  been  written  into  the  law  itself  and  it  has  been  pro- 
posed that  the  Federal  law  be  amended  to  include  such  standards. 

Hearings  (Regulation  5).  When  the  examination  or  analysis 
indicates  that  a  sample  is  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the 
meaning  of  the  law,  notice  is  given  to  the  party  or  parties  re- 
sponsible for  the  food  and  opportunity  is  given  for  a  hearing  before 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  or  his  representative.  These  hear- 
ings are  confined  to  questions  of  fact  (as  distinguished  from  ques- 
tions of  law).  The  interested  parties  may  appear  in  person 
or  by  attorney  and  may  submit  evidence  to  show  any  fault  or 
error  in  the  findings  of  the  analyst  or  examiner  and  may  present 
questions  to  be  propounded  to  analysts  by  the  officer  conducting 
the  hearing.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  order  a  reexam- 
ination of  the  sample  or  have  new  samples  drawn  for  exami- 
nation. 

Prosecutions.     If,  after  a  hearing,  it  appears  that  a  violation 


40  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

of  the  law  has  been  committed,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
reports  the  case  to  the  Department  of  Justice  for  prosecution, 
and  action  is  brought  by  the  proper  United  States  attorney,  the 
cases  being  tried  in  the  Federal  courts. 

Notices  of  judgment.  Not  less  than  thirty  days  after  a  judg- 
ment of  the  court  shall  have  been  rendered,  the  findings  are 
published  in  such  form  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  direct. 
Usually  the  result  of  each  trial  is  published  under  a  separate 
number  and  distributed  in  leaflet  form,  each  leaflet  containing 
one  or  more  notices.  These  notices  are  numbered  in  series  and 
designated  as  Notices  of  Judgment  (N.  J.) .  Up  to  the  beginning 
of  1914,  when  the  law  had  been  seven  years  in  effect,  there  had 
been  issued  from  the  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  2762 
such  Notices  of  Judgment.^  Of  these  cases  more  than  nine 
tenths  had  been  decided  favorably  to  the  Government.  If  an 
appeal  is  taken  from  the  judgment  of  the  court  before  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Notice  of  Judgment,  notice  of  the  appeal  must 
accompany  the  publication. 

Definitions  of  adulteration  and  misbranding.  The  types 
of  adulteration  and  misbranding  recognized  by  the  law  were 
summarized  above  and  their  exact  wording  may  also  be  seen 
from  the  text  of  the  law.  Some  types  of  adulteration  and  mis- 
branding can  be  demonstrated  directly,  while  others  are  detected 
through  the  fact  that  analysis  shows  the  article  to  be  of  inferior 
composition.  The  latter  cases  require  the  acceptance  of  some 
standard  for  comparison.  For  this  purpose  the  standards  of 
the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  already  re- 
ferred to,  have  generally  been  upheld  by  the  courts.  Some  of 
the  Rules  and  Regulations  and  many  of  the  Food  Inspection 
Decisions  are  also  in  the  nature  of  interpretations  of  the  defini- 
tions of  adulteration  and  misbranding. 

The  clause  which  declares  a  food  a^iulterated  if  it  contain 
any  added  poisonous  or  other  added  deleterious  ingredient  which 

*  In  April,  igi4,  the  number  had  reached  3096. 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  41 

may  render  such  article  injurious  to  health,  has  given  rise  to 
more  discussion  than  any  other  part  of  the  law.  It  had  become 
a  custom  of  the  trade  to  use  in  the  preparation  of  food  a  number 
of  substances  which  had  been  found  helpful  in  securing  the  de- 
sired color  or  keeping  qualities  of  the  foods,  but  whose  whole- 
someness  had  sometimes  been  questioned. 

Congress  declined  to  include  in  the  food  law  any  specific 
authorization  or  prohibition  of  any  particular  substance  so  used, 
leaving  this  to  be  covered  by  the  rules  and  regulations  which 
the  three  Secretaries  were  directed  to  prepare,  and  appropriating 
money  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  investigations  as 
to  the  wholesomeness  of  these  substances. 

The  three  Secretaries  then  provided  (Regulation  15b)  that: 
"  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  determine  from  time  to 
time,  in  accordance  with  the  authority  conferred  by  the  agri- 
cultural appropriation  act,  Public  382,  approved  June  30,  1906, 
the  principles  which  shall  guide  the  use  of  colors,  preservatives, 
and  other  substances  added  to  foods  ;  and  when  concurred  in  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  the  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
the  principles  so  established  shall  become  a  part  of  these  regu- 
lations." 

Regarding  the  wholesomeness  of  colors,  it  is  the  practice  to 
permit  the  use  of  any  natural  vegetable  or  animal  color  which 
is  not  known  to  be  impure  or  injurious,  but  to  be  much  more 
stringent  with  respect  to  the  use  of  artificial  (synthetic)  colors. 
Only  seven  artificial  colors  have  so  far  been  authorized  and  of 
these  the  purity  of  each  batch  must  be  attested  before  it  can 
legally  be  used.     (See  Appendix.) 

Whether  the  presence  of  an  authorized  color  must  be  declared 
upon  the  label  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  food  and  will 
be  considered  in  studying  the  different  types  of  food  in  the  chap- 
ters which  follow.  Any  coloring  which  is  intended  to  mislead 
is  illegal  and  in  most  other  cases  the  fact  that  the  food  has 
been  artificially  colored  must  be  plainly  stated. 


42  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Under  these  regulations  many  manufacturers  who  formerly 
used  artificial  coloring  have  ceased  to  do  so.  Thus  one  of  the 
good  effects  of  the  law  is  that  it  results  in  foods  being  marketed 
in  more  nearly  their  normal  appearance. 

The  establishment  of  principles  to  guide  the  use  of  preserva- 
tives has  presented  greater  difficulty  than  in  the  case  of  colors, 
partly  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  preservation  of  food  is 
necessary  while  the  coloring  of  food  is  not.  It  is  true  that  by 
drying,  by  heating  and  canning,  and  to  a  certain  extent  by 
refrigeration,  foods  may  be  preserved  from  the  season  of  abun- 
dance to  the  season  of  scarcity  without  the  addition  of  any 
preservative  substance,  but  such  a  restriction  of  method  of 
preservation  would  often  be  unnecessarily  burdensome  and 
costly  and  would  in  many  cases  involve  a  loss  of  the  flavor  for 
which  the  food  is  chiefly  prized.  The  prohibition  of  all  pre- 
servative substances  would  be  as  unsatisfactory  to  the  consumer 
as  to  the  producer  and  has  never  been  seriously  contemplated. 
What  has  sometimes  been  attempted  is  to  divide  all  preservative 
substances  into  two  classes,  those  in  one  class  to  be  freely  per- 
mitted and  those  in  the  other  class  to  be  strictly  forbidden.  The 
fact  that  the  law  defines  food  in  such  a  way  as  to  include  condi- 
ments has  been  construed  as  tacitly  authorizing  the  unlimited 
use  of  such  preservatives  as  have  condimental  properties  (like 
salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  and  woodsmoke)  and  the  question  of  whole- 
someness  has  as  yet  been  officially  raised  only  with  respect  to 
the  noncondimental  preservatives  such  as  saltpeter,  sodium 
benzoate,  salicylic  acid,  and  sulphur  dioxide. 

To  assist  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  determining  the 
wholesomeness  of  certain  of  the  preservative  substances  used, 
a  Referee  Board  of  Consulting  Scientific  Experts  consisting  of 
five  prominent  scientists,  not  otherwise  connected  with  the 
Government  service,  has  been  appointed.  In  general  such  Rules 
and  Regulations  governing  the  use  of  preservatives  as  have  been 
formulated  by  the  three  Secretaries  have  been  based  on  the  find- 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  43 

ings  of  the  Referee  Board  or  have  been  made  tentatively  pending 
investigation.  The  regulations  at  present  in  force  are  given  in 
full  in  Appendix  B.  As  might  be  anticipated,  when  the  different 
(noncondimental)  preservative  substances  are  treated  each  on 
its  own  merits  the  regulations  deemed  necessary  are  not  the 
same  in  all  cases.  Regarding  the  four  substances  just  mentioned 
the  present  Federal  regulations  are  as  follows :  Saltpeter  may 
be  used  without  restriction ;  sodium  benzoate  may  be  used 
with  no  restriction  except  that  the  presence  and  true  amount 
must  be  stated  on  the  label ;  salicylic  acid  is  forbidden;  sulphur 
dioxide  may  be  used  only  in  those  foods  in  which  its  use  was 
already  common  and  only  in  strictly  limited  amounts. 

Guaranty.  In  order  to  secure  justice  in  the  fixing  of  re- 
sponsibility, the  law  provides  (Section  9)  that  the  manufacturer 
or  wholesaler  may  assume  responsibility  for  his  products  so 
that  he  and  not  the  retail  dealer  shall  be  held  responsible  in  case 
of  adulteration  or  misbranding.  Formerly  this  was  done  by 
filing  a  general  guaranty  which  was  recorded  under  a  Serial 
Number.  Each  package  then  bore  a  label  showing  the  serial 
number  and  name  and  address  of  the  party  responsible  for  the 
guaranty.  This  guaranty  was  simply  to  fix  responsibility  and 
to  protect  the  retail  dealer.  It  afforded  no  additional  protection 
to  the  consumer  and  added  nothing  to  the  penalty  in  case  the 
food  was  found  to  be  adulterated  or  misbranded.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  always  understood,  many  purchasers  supposing 
that  they  derived  some  additional  protection  from  such  guar- 
anty. 

Notice  has  now  been  given  of  an  amendment  to  Regulation 
9,  relating  to  guaranty,  which  amendment,  effective  May  i, 
1916,  abolishes  the  issuing  of  serial  numbers  and  forbids  their 
use  or  the  printing  of  the  "  guaranty  legend  "  on  the  labels. 

Under  the  new  regulation  the  guaranty  should  be  incorpo- 
rated in  or  attached  to  the  bill  of  sale,  invoice,  bill  of  lading,  etc., 
and  should  not  appear  on  the  labels  or  packages. 


44  FOOT)   PRODUCTS 

Imported  foods.  Section  ii  of  the  law  provides  for  the  inspection  o\ 
foods  while  still  in  the  hands  of  the  customs  officers  or  under  bond.  This 
greatly  facilitates  the  prevention  of  importation  of  adulterated  food,  and  it 
is  believed  that  comparatively  little  adulterated  food  is  now  imported. 
When  adulterated  food  bearing  labels  indicating  a  foreign  origin  is  found 
in  the  American  market  the  possibility  of  fraudulent  labeling  is  also  to  be 
considered.  Note  that,  as  an  additional  precaution  in  the  case  of  imported 
foods,  the  law  forbids  the  importation  of  any  kind  of  food  which  is  forbidden 
entry  to,  or  forbidden  to  be  sold  or  restricted  in  sale  in,  the  country  in  which 
it  is  made  or  from  which  it  is  exported. 

Private  importations.  In  Food  Inspection  Decision  88  it  is  held  that  no 
food  or  drug  which  is  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  the 
act  shall  be  brought  into  the  United  States  from  abroad  even  if  only  for  the 
consumption  of  the  importer  or  for  free  distribution.  Such  private  importa- 
tions are  subject  to  the  same  rules  and  restrictions  as  ordinary  commercial 
imports. 

State  and  Municipal  Food  Control 

Since  the  Federal  authorities  cannot  inspect  or  control  any 
food  which  is  produced  and  consumed  in  the  same  state,  it  is 
evident  that  each  of  the  forty-eight  states  must  have  adequate 
legislation  and  inspection  if  its  citizens  are  to  obtain  the  full 
benefit  of  the  pure  food  movement.  In  order  fully  to  realize 
the  importance  of  state  and  municipal  control,  one  must  remem- 
ber that  some  of  the  foods  most  readily  subjected  to  fraudulent 
adulteration  {e.g.  milk)  and  some  of  those  most  subject  to  dan- 
gerous contamination  (e.g.  meats  and  shellfish)  are  largely 
handled  by  producers  and  dealers  who  do  a  local  business  and 
so  do  not  come  under  the  authority  of  the  Federal  government. 
Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  is  now  a  highly  centralized  in- 
dustry and  is  regulated  both  by  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  and  by 
a  special  Meat  Inspection  Law  (see  Chapter  VI  and  Appendix  D), 
yet  about  half  the  meat  consumed  in  the  United  States  is 
slaughtered  in  local  establishments  which  are  never  visited  by 
the  Federal  inspectors  because  they  do  no  interstate  business. 

The  rural  population  and  the  residents  of  small  towns,  who 
together  make  up  about  one  half  the  people  of   the  United 


FOOD   LEGISLATION  45 

States,  derive  relatively  little  direct  benefit  from  the  Federal 
law.  Indirectly  they  benefit  in  proportion  as  the  Federal  legis- 
lation and  inspection  serves  to  stimulate  and  standardize  that 
of  the  states.  At  the  present  time  most  of  the  states  have  on 
their  statute  books  food  laws  which  are  modeled  more  or  less 
directly  after  the  Federal  law  and  which  are  fairly  satisfactory 
in  so  far  as  they  are  enforced.  Rarely,  however,  are  sufficient 
funds  appropriated  to  make  possible  a  strict  enforcement  of  the 
state  law. 

On  the  other  hand,  state  laws  may  be  more  stringent  in  some 
respects  than  those  of  the  Federal  government.  Thus  several 
states  limit  the  time  that  food  may  be  held  in  cold  storage. 
The  new  (1914)  Sanitary  Code  of  New  York  State  makes  it 
unlawful  for  any  person  "  affected  with  any  communicable 
disease  to  handle  food  or  food  products  in  any  manner  what- 
ever." 

The  responsibility  of  the  enforcement  of  state  food  laws  is 
lodged  sorhetimes  with  health  officers,  sometimes  with  the 
commissioner  of  agriculture,  sometimes  with  a  food  commis- 
sioner independent  of  either  the  department  of  agriculture  or  of 
health.  Not  infrequently  the  office  of  "  dairy  and  food  com- 
missioner "  has  developed  through  the  fact  that  legal  regulation 
of  the  milk  supply  and  dairy  industry  antedated  general  food 
legislation.  Whatever  the  organization,  it  is  important  that 
the  enforcement  of  the  state  food  laws  be  in  the  hands  of  perma- 
nent officials,  scientifically  trained,  gifted  with  good  judgment 
and  administrative  capacity,  and  entirely  independent  of  politics. 

State  legislation  and  inspection  may  be  supplemented  by 
municipal  ordinances  enforced  by  distinct  corps  of  officers.  In 
New  York  City,  for  example,  the  board  of  health  has  the  power 
to  enact  a  sanitary  code  which  becomes  law  on  publication  with- 
out requiring  the  approval  of  any  other  body  or  official.  This 
code  contains  general  rules  for  food  control,  and  additional  rules 
and  regulations  to  govern  certain  industries  are  also  promul- 


46  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

gated  by  the  board  and  thus  become  part  of,  and  have  the  legal 
force  of,  the  code.  The  board  of  health  has  the  power  to  control 
any  food  industry  by  requiring  that  it  be  carried  on  only  under 
permits  granted  by  (and  revokable  by)  the  board.  Violations 
of  the  sanitary  code  may  be  punished  either  by  criminal  prose- 
cution or  civil  suit.  The  policy  has  been  to  bring  criminal  prose- 
cution in  all  cases  of  actual  adulteration.  In  19 13  there  were 
118  inspectors  connected  with  the  New  York  City  division  of 
food  inspection,  of  whom  41  were  assigned  to  general  food 
inspection,  19  to  country  milk  inspection,  29  to  city  milk 
inspection,  and  18  were  sanitary  inspectors  engaged  in  the 
supervision  of  physical  conditions  in  establishments  where 
food  is  prepared  or  sold;  there  were  also  4  medical  inspectors 
and  7  veterinarians.  For  the  laboratory  examination  of  food 
the  city  employed  8  chemists  with  7  technical  and  clerical  assist- 
ants and  4  bacteriologists  with  10  assistants.  Furthermore, 
the  city  requires  that  the  following  food  industries  be  carried 
on  only  under  official  permits  and  specific  regulations :  dealers 
in  milk  and  all  places  where  milk  is  sold ;  slaughterhouses, 
including  poultry-killing  establishments;  sausage  factories; 
egg-breaking  establishments;  establishments  for  the  bottling 
of  "  soft  drinks  " ;  or  for  the  manufacture  of  ice  cream  and  other 
frozen  products. 

In  all  probability  the  next  few  years  will  see  a  marked  devel- 
opment of  state  and  municipal  food  control  along  lines  consis- 
tent with  the  Federal  food  inspection,  but  in  some  cases  even 
more  exacting,  as,  for  example,  in  requiring  the  grading  and 
classification  of  market  milk  and  not  simply  that  it  be  free  from 
adulteration  or  misbranding. 

REFERENCES 

Abbott.     Food  and  Drug  Inspection.     Article  in  Reference  Handbook  of 

the  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  3,  pages  162-180. 
Bell.    Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  (British). 


FOOD  LEGISLATION  47 

BiGELOw.  Foods  and  Food  Control.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  69. 

BuCHKA.     Die  Nahrungsmittelgesetzgebung  in  Deutschen  Reiche. 

DuNLAP.  Food  Laws  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  their  Administration. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin 

143- 

DtiNN.     Pure  Food  and  Drug  Legal  Manual. 

Leach.     Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

Nextfeldt.     Der  Nahrungsmittelchemiker  als  Sachverstandiger. 

Parry.     Foods  and  Drugs,  Vol.  2. 

Proceedings  of  the  Association  of  State  and  National  Dairy  and  Food  De- 
partments. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Food  Inspection  Decisions  and 
Notices  of  Judgment. 

Westervelt.     Pure  Food  and  Drug  Laws,  Federal  and  State. 

Wiley.     Foods  and  Their  Adulterations. 


CHAPTER  III 
MILK 

Milk  is  the  one  article  of  diet  whose  sole  function  in  nature 
is  to  serve  as  food.  Each  species  of  mammal  produces  a  milk 
especially  adapted  to  the  nutritive  requirements  of  its  own 
young,  but  it  was  early  learned  that  the  milk  of  other  species 
is  also  an  excellent  food  for  man,  and  several  different  species 
are  used  for  dairy  purposes  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  In 
general  only  cows'  milk  is  of  much  commercial  importance,  and 
the  statements  which  follow  refer  always  to  r.ows'  milk  unless 
otherwise  explained. 

The  amount  of  milk  consumed  as  such  ^  in  the  United  States 
is  estimated  at  one  half  pint  to  one  third  of  a  quart  per  person 
per  day.  This  amounts  to  some  25,000,000  to  30,000,000  quarts 
per  day  for  the  country  as  a  whole.  If  the  average  retail  value 
is  about  5  cents  a  quart,  the  milk  industry  of  the  country  will  be 
seen  to  amount  to  over  $1,250,000  a  day  or  over  $400,000,000' 
per  year. 

The  importance  of  the  milk  industry  to  the  community  is 
much  greater  than  its  money  value  (as  compared  with  other 
industries)  would  imply.  It  is  probable  that  the  quality  of  the 
milk  supply  bears  a  closer  relation  to  the  public  health  than  does 
that  of  any  other  food.  This  is  partly  because  of  the  excep- 
tional nutritive  qualities  of  milk  and  the  prominent  part  which 
it  plays  in  the  diet  of  children  and  others  to  whom  the  quality 
of  the  food  is  of  special  importance,  and  partly  because  the 

*  A  much  larger  quantity  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese. 
These  industries  will  be  described  later. 


MILK  49 

fluidity  and  opacity  of  milk  offer  unusual  opportunity  for  adul- 
teration; and  the  fact  that  bacteria  readily  grow  and  multiply 
in  it  makes  it  especially  important  that  the  milk  be  carefully 
guarded  from  contamination. 

It  is  therefore  important  that  the  milk  industry  be  controlled 
with  all  possible  care  and  with  reference  both  to  the  nutritive 
and  to  the  sanitary  qualities  of  the  product. 

In  the  present  chapter  the  production  and  handling  of  milk 
will  first  be  outlined,  then  its  composition  and  standards  of 
purity  will  be  discussed,  and  finally  its  nutritive  value,  pecu- 
niary economy,  and  place  in  the  diet  will  be  considered. 

Production  and  Handling  of  Milk 

The  cows.  A  milch  cow  should  produce  an  average  of  over 
2  gallons  of  milk  per  day  for  eight  months  of  each  year  with  a 
smaller  yield  for  about  two  months  longer,  making  a  total  of  at 
least  600  gallons  or  at  least  5000  pounds  of  milk  for  the  year. 

Many  high-grade  cows  produce  three  or  four  times  this  quan- 
tity, and  Wing  cites  the  case  of  one  cow  which  produced  over 
30,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year;  but  the  average  for  all  the  milch 
cows  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  would  doubtless 
be  below  the  5000  pounds  suggested. 

Increased  yield  of  milk  per  cow  may  be  obtained  both  by 
breeding  and  selection  and  by  superior  care  and  feeding.  Ac- 
cording to  a  recent  estimate  the  annual  yield  of  milk  per  cow  in 
Denmark,  where  the  dairy  industry  is  well  developed  and  highly 
systematized,  has  increased  from  4480  pounds  in  1898  to  4884 
pounds  in  1901,  5335  pounds  in  1904,  and  5874  pounds  in  1908. 

Since  the  fat  of  the  milk  is  commercially  its  most  valuable 
constituent,  the  productiveness  of  a  milch  cow  is  perhaps  as 
often  expressed  in  terms  of  fat  or  butter  yield  as  in  terms  of 
weight  of  milk.  Those  races  of  cattle  which  have  been  devel- 
oped with  special  reference  to  milk  or  butter  production  are 
called  the  dairy  breeds,  and  those  which  are  chiefly  useful  for 


50  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

meat  production  are  known  as  beef  breeds.  A  recent  investi- 
gation in  Wisconsin  ^  showed  a  higher  food  consumption  on  the 
part  of  the  more  productive  dairy  cows,  but  the  value  of  the  milk 
produced  increased  much  more  rapidly  than  the  cost  of  feed  so 
that  the  more  productive  cows  proved  very  much  more  profitable. 

Good  health  of  the  cow  is  of  great  importance  and  should 
be  insured  by  semiannual  veterinary  inspection.  Annual  or 
semiannual  testing  with  tuberculin  with  elimination  or  segre- 
gation of  all  cows  which  give  evidence  of  tuberculosis  serves  to 
protect  the  herd  from  the  ravages  of  the  disease  as  well  as  to 
remove  one  source  of  possible  danger  to  the  consumer  of  the 
milk.  When  new  cows  are  to  be  added  to  a  dairy  herd,  care 
should  be  taken  to  ascertain  that  they  are  free  from  disease, 
particularly  tuberculosis. 

Dirt  and  dust  adhering  to  the  cow  constitute  one  of  the  most 
serious  sources  of  contamination  of  milk.  It  is  therefore  very 
important  that  the  cows  be  kept  clean  and  especially  that  the 
udder  and  adjacent  parts  of  the  body  be  thoroughly  clean  at 
the  time  of  milking. 

The  stable  should  be  free  from  contaminating  surroundings, 
well  drained,  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  as  clean  and  comfort- 
able as  possible.  It  should  be  used  for  no  other  purpose  than  the 
keeping  of  cows,  and  if  there  is  a  loft  overhead  the  ceiling  should 
be  tight  to  prevent  the  falling  of  dust.  The  feeding  of  the  cows 
should  be  so  planned  that  there  will  be  no  dust  from  hay  or  other 
feed  in  the  air  of  the  stable  at  milking  time.  The  floor  should 
be  tight,  constructed  preferably  of  cement  and  properly 
guttered ;  walls  and  ceilings  should  be  whitewashed  twice  a  year. 

The  milk  house  should  be  separate  from  the  stable  and  so 
located  as  to  be  free  from  dust  and  odors.  It  should  be  used 
for  no  other  purpose  and  should  be  light,  clean,  and  well  screened. 

>  Studies  in  Dairy  Production,  based  on  the  Records  secured  in  the  Wisconsin 
Dairy  Cow  Competition,  igog-igii.  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Research  Bulletin  26  (October,  191 2). 


MILK  51 

All  utensils  which  come  in  contact  with  the  milk  should 
be  of  metal  with  smoothly  soldered  joints.  In  addition  to  being 
thoroughly  washed  the  utensils  should  be  sterilized  by  means  of 
steam  or  boiling  water  and  then  kept  either  closed  or  inverted 
in  a  clean  place  free  from  dust  until  used.  '  By  furnishing  the 
farmers  with  sterilized  utensils  for  each  milking  and  insisting 
upon  the  use  of  covered  milking  pails  (see  below)  Dr.  North 
effected  an  enormous  reduction  in  the  bacterial  contamination 
of  milk. 

Milking  is  performed  sometimes  by  machine,  but  usually  by 
hand.  Cleanliness  of  the  milker  and  his  clothing  are  essential 
to  cleanliness  of  the  milk.  On  well-conducted  milk  farms  the 
milker  puts  on  a  special  washable  suit  for  milking  and  washes 
and  dries  his  hands  immediately  before  commencing  to  milk 
each  cow.  The  cows  having  previously  been  cleaned,  the  udders 
and  flanks  should  be  wiped  with  a  moist  cloth  preparatory  to 
milking.  As  a  further  precaution  against  the  falling  of  dust 
and  bacteria  into  the  milk  a  covered  or  hooded  milking  pail 
should  be  used. 

Machines  by  means  of  which  one  man  may  milk  several  cows 
at  a  time  are  now  on  the  market.  These  have  the  advantage  of 
reducing  the  number  of  employees  required  in  milking  and 
diminishing  the  opportunities  for  contamination  of  the  milk 
through  contact  with  the  air  of  the  stable  or  the  hands  of  the 
milker ;  among  the  disadvantages  are  the  cost  of  the  equipment 
necessary  for  machine  milking  and  the  difficulty  of  preventing 
the  rubber  parts  of  the'  mechanism  from  becoming  a  breeding 
place  for  bacteria.  A  recent  extended  study  at  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  ^  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  machine  milk  now  compares  favorably  with  ordinary  hand 
milking  in  its  effect  upon  the  milk  flow  and  upon  the  germ  con- 
tent of  the  milk ;  that  machine  milking  has  proven  practicable 
and  is  of  interest  mainly  because  of  the  labor  problem. 

'  Bulletin  No.  353,  November,  1912. 


52  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Handling  the  milk.  The  milk  is  removed  from  the  stable 
to  the  milk  room  as  quickly  as  possible  and  (after  clarifying  or 
straining  through  sterile  cotton  or  cloth  if  deemed  necessary) 
is  promptly  cooled  to  prevent  the  growth  and  multiplication 
of  such  bacteria  as  it  may  contain.^  The  importance  of  early 
and  thorough  cooling  was  well  shown  in  an  experiment  by  Conn, 
in  which  it  was  found  that  the  multiplication  of  bacteria  in  24 
hours  in  milk  kept  at  50°  F.  (10  °  C.)  was  only  fivefold,  while 
at  70°  F.  (21°  C.)  it  was  seven  hundred  and  fifty  fold. 

Usually  the  milk  is  first  poured  into  a  mixing  tank,  then  run 
over  a  metal  cooler,  and  the  cold  milk  filled  into  cans  or  bottles 
and  kept  cold  both  in  storage  and  during  transportation.  In 
many  localities  it  is  required  by  law  that  milk  be  held  at  a  tem- 
perature not  above  50°  or  55°  F.  until  delivered  to  the  consumer. 
Preferably  the  milk  is  bottled  in  the  country,  the  bottles  packed 
in  cracked  ice  and  kept  so  until  delivered  to  the  consumer. 

General  sanitation.  In  recent  years  much  attention  has  been 
given  to  improvements  in  the  sanitary  conditions  surrounding 
the  production  and  handling  of  milk,  largely  because  it  is  real- 
ized that  contaminated  milk  may  undergo  such  deterioration 
as  to  become  unwholesome,  or  may  be  the  means  of  transmitting 
specific  infectious  diseases.  As  an  aid  to  dairy  farmers  the  Dairy 
Division  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
published  for  free  distribution  Twenty  Dairy  Suggestions  with 
Special  Reference  to  Sanitation,  which  are  printed  on  cloth  in 
poster  form  suitable  for  posting  in  barns  and  milk  rooms.  The 
rules  for  the  production  and  handling  of  certified  milk,  which  may 
be  taken  as  representing  ideal  conditions,  are  given  in  full  at 
the  back  of  this  book.     (See  Appendix  C.) 

As  an  example  of  the  influence  of  sanitary  precautions  upon 
the  keeping  qualities  of  milk,  it  may  be  noted  that  three  Ameri- 

'  The  multiplication  of  bacteria  in  milk  does  not  begin  as  soon  as  the  milk  is 
drawn,  but  is  preceded  by  a  short  period  in  which  there  is  an  apparent  decrease  in 
the  number  of  bacteria.  This  is  attributed  to  a  "  bactericidal  property  "  of  freshly 
drawn  milk. 


MILK  53 

can  dairy  farms  exhibited  raw  milk  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1900,  one  of  them  sending  weekly  shipments  throughout  the 
summer,  each  of  which  was  kept  on  exhibition  in  the  raw  state 
without  spoilage  until  the  next  shipment  arrived.  It  was 
difficult  to  convince  the  jury  of  European  experts  of  the  fact 
that  "  cleanliness  and  cold  "  were  the  only  preservatives  needed 
to  accomplish  the  keeping  of  raw  milk  in  a  fresh  sweet  condition 
for  two  to  four  weeks  in  midsummer. 

In  order  to  provide  definite  standards  for  judging  and  record- 
ing sanitary  conditions,  dairy  score  cards  have  been  formulated 
and  are  widely  used.  The  one  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,^  is 
given  on  pages  54  and  55. 

The  ratings  obtained  by  dairies  under  the  score  card  system 
of  inspection  are  often  employed  as  one  means  of  classifying 
milks  with  regard  to  their  degrees  of  excellence.  Usually  the 
sanitary  quality  of  the  milk  as  judged  by  laboratory  methods 
runs  approximately  parallel  with  the  sanitary  care  exercised  in 
its  production  and  handling,  but  there  are  sometimes  discrep- 
ancies; and  at  present  there  is  difference  of  opinion  among  san- 
itarians as  to  the  relative  weight  which  should  be  given  (i)  to 
the  dairy  score,  (2)  to  the  results  of  laboratory  examinations, 
for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  sanitary  quality  of  the  milk  offered 
for  sale. 

In  this  connection  the  following  statement  recently  author- 
ized by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  of 
interest : 

Information  has  come  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  that  persons, 
representing  certain  milk  dealers,  are  circulating  the  statement  that  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  abandoned  all  bacteriological 
examination  of  milk  as  a  test  for  its  cleanliness  and  fitness  for  human  con- 
sumption. 

The  Department,  therefore,  has  issued  the  following  statement  of  its 
position. 

'  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  p.  120. 


54 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Score  for  equipment . 


DAIRY  SCORE   CARD 

+  Score  for  methods 


.Final  score 


Equipment 

Score 

Methods 

Score 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Perfect 

Allowed 

cows 

cows 

Health 

6 

Cleanliness  of  cows  .    . 

8 

Apparently  in  good 

health i 

If  tested  with  tubercu- 

* 

STABLES 

lin  once  a  year  and 

Cleanliness  of  stables 

6 

no    tuberculosis     is 

Floor       2 

found,  or    if    tested 

Walls I 

once  in  six  months 

Ceiling  and  ledges      .  1 

and  all  reacting  ani- 

Mangers   and    parti- 

mals removed     .     .  s 

tions     I 

(If    tested     only 

Window        ....  I 

once  a  year  and  re- 

Stable   air    at    milking 

acting  animals  found 

time 

6 

and  removed,  2.) 

Barnyard  clean  and  well 

Comfort       

2 

drained  

2 



Bedding i 

Removal     of     manure 

Temperature  of  stable  i 

daily      to     field     or 

Food  (clean  and  wholesome) 

2 

proper  pit    ...     . 

2 

Water 

3 

(To   so   feet   from 

Clean  and  fresh      .     .  i 

stable,  I.) 

Convenient  and  abun- 

dant      I 

ICILK  ROOM 

STABLES 

Cleanliness  of  milk  room 

3 

Location  of  stable      .     . 

2 

WeU  drained      .     .     .  i 

UTENSILS  AND  lOLKING 

Free  from  contaminat- 

ing surroundings     .     .  i 

Care  and  cleanliness  of 

Construction  of  stable   . 

4 

utensils 

8 

Tight,  sound  floor  and 

Thoroughly  washed  and 

proper  gutter      .     .  2 

sterilized  in  live  steam 

Smooth,    tight    walls 

for  30  minutes       .     .  5 

and  ceiling      .     .     .  i 

(Thoroughly 

Proper  stall,  tie,  and 

washed  and  placed 

manger      ....  1 

over  steam  jet,  4; 

Light:    Four  sq.  ft.  of 

thoroughly  washed 

glass  per  cow     .     .     . 

4 

and    scalded    with 

(Three  sq.  ft.,  3; 

•    boiling    water,    3 ; 

2sq.ft.,  2;  isq.ft.,1. 

thoroughly  washed. 

Deduct  for  uneven 

not  scalded,  2.) 

distribution.) 

Inverted  in  pure  air   .  3 

Ventilation :    Automatic 

Cleanliness  of  milking   . 

9 



sjrstem 

3 

Clean,  dry  hands        .  3 

(Adjustable       win- 

Udders   washed    and 

dow,  I.) 

dried 6 

Cubic  feet  of  space  for 

(Udders    cleaned 

cow :  500  to  1000  feet 

3 

with  moist  cloth,  4 ; 

(Less  than  500  feet, 

cleaned    with    dry 

2 ;  less  than  400  feet, 

cloth    at    least    15 

I ;  less  than  300  feet, 

minutes  before  milk- 

0; over  1000  feet,  0.) 

ing,  I.) 

MILK 


55 


DAIRY   SCORE   CARD  —  Continued 

Score  for  equipment +  Score  for  methods = 


Final  score 


Score 

Methods 

Score 

Eqijipment 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Perfect 

Allowed 

UTENSILS 

HANDLING   THE  MILK 

Construction  and  condi- 

Cleanliness of  attendants 

I 

tion  of  utensils        .     . 

I 

Milk  removed  immediately 

Water  for  cleaning     .     . 

I 

from  stable     .... 

2 

(Clean,  convenient 

Prompt  cooling  (cooled  im- 

and abundant.) 

mediately  after  milking 

Small-top  milking  pail    . 

3 

each  cow) 

2 

Facilities  for  hot  water  or 

Efficient    cooling ;    below 

steam 

I 

So°F 

S 

(Should      be      in 

(Si°  to  SS°,  4;  S6° 

milk  house,  not  in 

to  60°,  2.) 

kitchen.) 

Storage ;  below  50°  F. .     . 

3 

Milk  cooler       .... 

I 

(Si°  to  S5°.  2;  56° 

Clean  milking  suits    .    . 

I 

to  60°,  1.) 
Transportation ;     iced    in 

MILK   ROOM 

summer 

(For   jacket    or   wet 

3 

Location  of  milk  room    . 

2 

blanket    allow    2 ;     dry 

Free  from  contaminat- 

blanket     or      covered 

ing  surroundings      .  i 

wagon,  I.) 

Convenient    .     .     .     .  i 

Construction  of  milk 

room 

2 

Floor,  walls,  and  ceil- 

ing     I 

Light,     ventilation. 

screens       .    .    .    .  i 

ToUl 

Total      .... 

40 

^1 

1.  All  statements  that  the  Department  has  abandoned,  or  will  abandon, 
the  bacteriological  examination  of  milk  shipped  in  interstate  commerce  as 
a  means  of  determining  its  cleanliness  and  fitness  for  human  consumption 
are  without  foundation.  While  the  Department  has  not  fixed  any  specific 
bacteriological  count  as  a  standard  in  the  enforcement  of  the  Food  and 
Drugs  Act,  it  does  use  bacteriological  examinations  in  reaching  its  conclusions, 
and  will  continue  to  use  these  methods  irrespective  of  what  action  any  Associ- 
ation may  take.  The  Department  has  never  stated  that  it  will  not  use  such 
methods. 

2.  The  only  change  in  policy  in  the  Department  in  regard  to  bacteriologi- 
cal examinations  has  been  to  discontinue  basing  prosecution  upon  the 
bacteriological  examination  of  a  single  sample.  It  now  collects  a  number  of 
samples  at  different  times  and  examines  them  bacteriologically.    If  the  bac- 


56  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

teriological  examination  shows  that  the  milk  is  not  clean,  but  is  not  a  serious 
menace  to  health,  and  the  bacteriological  deviation  from  clean  milk  is  a 
small  one,  the  Department,  through  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  en- 
deavors to  teach  the  dairyman  how  to  produce  clean  milk.  If  he  then 
neglects  to  take  measures  to  make  his  milk  clean  and  safe  for  human  con- 
sumption, the  Department,  by  taking  action  in  the  case  of  milk  shipped  in 
interstate  commerce,  endeavors  to  force  him  to  bring  his  milk  to  a  point  of 
safety  and  food  excellence  through  prosecutions  under  the  Food  and  Drugs 
Act. 

Certified  milk.  This  term  is  properly  applied  only  to  milk 
produced  under  sanitary  conditions  of  exceptional  excellence, 
by  the  most  painstaking  methods  and  under  the  constant  super- 
vision and  inspection  of  a  Medical  Milk  Commission.  It  is 
understood  as  meaning  that  the  milk  is  certified  as  to  its  quality 
and  wholesomeness  by  a  properly  constituted  medical  milk 
commission.  The  medical  profession  was  led  to  engage  in  the 
certification  of  milk  in  order  that  there  might  be  made  avail- 
able for  infant  feeding  at  least  a  limited  supply  of  milk  of  excep- 
tional excellence  which  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  absolutely 
safe.  The  requirements  placed  upon  the  producer  and  handler 
are  such  as  to  make  the  cost  of  certified  milk  about  twice  that 
of  ordinarily  good  bottled  milk.  Although  less  than  i  per  cent 
of  the  market  milk  of  commerce  is  of  this  grade,  the  certified 
milk  movement  has  had  great  influence  in  improving  dairy  prac- 
tice and  raising  the  sanitary  quality  of  the  general  milk  supply. 
The  detailed  requirements  for  the  production  and  handling  of 
certified  milk  are  given  in  Appendix  C  at  the  back  of  this 
book. 

The  North  system  of  sanitary  milk  production  differs  from 
the  system  in  which  certified  milk  is  produced  in  that  much  of 
the  responsibility  which  the  certified  milk  system  imposes  upon 
the  farmer  is  by  the  North  system  transferred  to  the  receiving 
station.  The  farmer  must  keep  only  healthy  cows  and  must 
clean  them  before  milking,  and  the  milk  must  be  drawn  by  a 
clean  milker  into  covered  pails,  transferred  without  straining 


MILK  57 

to  the  milk  cans  and  kept  in  icewater  until  sent  to  the  receiving 
station.  At  the  receiving  station  all  pails  and  cans  are.  thor- 
oughly washed,  sterilized  with  live  steam,  dried  with  a  blast  of 
hot  air,  covered  and  delivered  back  to  the  farmer  who  must 
keep  them  unopened  until  the  next  milking  time.  Other  fea- 
tures of  the  North  system  are  daily  laboratory  tests  of  each 
farmer's  milk  at  the  receiving  station  and  payment  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  milk  as  shown  by  these  tests. 

Pasteurization  of  milk  by  heating  it  to  a  temperature  of 
60°  to  63°  C.  (140°  to  145°  F.)  and  holding  at  this  tempera- 
ture for  20  to  30  minutes  serves  to  destroy  any  bacteria  of 
diseases  regarded  as  transmissible  by  milk.  The  use  of  higher 
temperatures  in  order  to  shorten  the  time  required  for  pasteuri- 
zation is  often  permitted,  but  is  undesirable  ;  partly  because  of 
the  possibility  that  higher  temperature  may  cause  chemical 
changes  in  certain  of  the  substances  in  the  milk  ;  partly  because 
higher  heating  kills  an  undue  proportion  of  the  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria while  the  spores  of  certain  bacteria  which  decompose  the 
proteins  of  the  milk  are  not  destroyed  and,  if  the  milk  be  kept 
too  long,  may  render  it  unwholesome  before  it  becomes  sour. 
As  a  precaution  against  subsequent  contamination  it  is  desirable 
that  the  milk  be  pasteurized  in  the  sealed  bottles  in  which  it  is 
to  be  delivered  to  the  consumer.  This  can  be  done  commer- 
cially at  little  cost  on  a  large  scale  by  means  of  apparatus  already 
on  the  market  for  the  pasteurization  of  bottled  beer.  There  is 
a  growing  tendency  on  the  part  of  public  health  authorities  to 
require  the  pasteurization  of  all  market  milk  which  is  not  ob- 
tained under  good  sanitary  conditions  from  tuberculin-tested 
cows. 

General  Composition  of  Milk 

The  qualitative  composition  has  been  concisely  stated  by 
Richmond  as  follows :  "  It  is  essentially  an  aqueous  solution  of 
milk-sugar,  albumin,  and  certain  salts,  holding  in  suspension 


S8 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


globules  of  fat,  and  in  a  state  of  semi-solution,  casein  ^  together 
with  mineral  matter.  Small  quantities  of  other  substances 
are  also  found."  Under  the  microscope  the  fat  globules  are 
readily  seen  floating  in  the  fluid  portion  or  serum  of  the  milk. 
(See  Fig.  2.)     These  globules  vary  considerably  in  size  from  an 


o  ^0°8 

O 


o    ocS-V^- 


O  oOj'  oO 


o 


o 


Fig.  2.  —  Fat  globules  in  milk  magnified  300  diameters. 


average  of  about  0.0025  millimeter  or  0.000 1  inch  in  diameter. 
A  single  drop  of  milk  contains  many  millions  of  these  fat  globules. 

The  yellowish  tint  of  milk  is  due  to  a  small  quantity  of  color- 
ing matter  contained  in  the  fat,  and  its  opacity  in  part  to  the 
fat  and  in  part  to  other  constituents,  particularly  the  caseinogen 
and  the  calcium  phosphate.  The  reaction  of  fresh  cows'  milk  is 
practically  neutral  to  litmus  and  slightly  acid  to  phenolphthalein, 
due  chiefly  to  the  presence  of  phosphates  and  carbonic  acid. 

Colostrum,  the  fluid  secreted  from  the  mammary  glands  for 
a  short  time  after  giving  birth  to  the  young,  is  different  in 
composition  and  physiological  properties.  Under  the  micro- 
scope colostrum  shows  characteristic  corpuscles  in  addition  to 
the  fat  globules  seen  in  milk. 

The  quantitative  composition  of  milk  varies  with  a  number  of 
conditions  the  most  prominent  of  which  are  the  breed  and  the 

'  For  this  protein  as  it  exists  in  milk  the  term  "caseinogen"  is  perhaps  preferable, 
the  term  "casein"  being  more  strictly  applicable  to  the  coagulated  protein  as  it 
exists  in  curd  or  cheese. 


MILK 


59 


individual  characteristics  of  the  cow.  It  is  difficult  to  make 
fair  comparisons  of  breeds  because  there  may  be  within  the  same 
breed  different  strains  or  families  which  differ  markedly  in  the 
composition  of  their  milk.  The  following  figures  obtained  by 
averaging  the  results  of  independent  breed  tests  made  at  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
are  believed  to  be  fairly  representative : 

Table  i.     Coaiposition  of  Milk  of  Different  Breeds  of  Cattle 


Breed 

Total  Solids 

Fat 

SOLIDS-NOT-FAT 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Percent 

Jersey 

14.87 

5-19 

9.68 

Guernsey  .... 

14.69 

S-i6 

9-53 

Durham     .... 

13-38 

4.05 

9-33 

Ayrshire     .... 

12-73 

3-64 

9.09 

Holstein     .... 

11.96 

3-43 

8.53 

Among  the  conditions  other  than  breed  and  individuality 
which  may  influence  the  composition  of  cows'  milk  may  be 
mentioned  advancement  in  lactation,  the  season  of  the  year, 
feeding  and  care,  time  and  completeness  of  milking. 

After  a  cow  has  been  three  or  four  months  in  lactation  there 
is  usually  a  decrease  in  the  milk  and  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
richness  of  the  milk  as  the  period  of  lactation  advances.  At 
the  end  of  the  lactation  period  when  the  cow  is  "  going  dry  " 
there  is  sometimes  a  marked  increase  in  the  richness  of  the  milk, 
but  the  quantity  produced  at  such  times  is  usually  too  small 
to  exert  much  influence  on  the  average  composition  of  the 
mixed  milk  of  the  herd. 

Other  conditions  being  the  same,  the  milk  of  well-kept  cows 
is  usually  richer  in  winter  than  in  summer,  in  cooler  than  in 
warmer  weather,  and  on  rich  dry  food  than  on  pasture,  except 
that  on  first  admitting  the  cows  to  pasture  in  spring  or  early 
summer  a  richer  milk  may  be  obtained  for  a  short  time.     The 


6o  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

milk  of  late  autumn  or  early  winter  usually  averages  from  0.25 
to  0.50  per  cent  higher  in  fat  and  also  in  protein  than  the  milk  of 
midsummer. 

Doubtless  reasonably  good  feeding  and  care  are  necessary  to 
secure  from  each  cow  as  rich  a  milk  as  she  is  normally  capable 
of  producing,  and  there  are  indications  that  by  changes  of  food, 
liberal  feeding  with  special  foods  or  perhaps  other  special  treat- 
ment, a  cow  may  be  made  to  produce  for  a  time  a  milk  above 
her  normal  standard  of  richness.  In  general  practice,  however, 
the  dairy  farmer  depends  upon  breeding  and  selection  to  secure 
milk  of  high  richness  and  expects  the  return  for  liberal  feeding 
and  exceptional  care  to  take  the  form  of  an  increased  yield  of 
milk  rather  than  a  permanent  change  in  its  composition. 

In  general  a  longer  interval  of  time  between  milkings  results 
in  a  slightly  decreased  fat  content.  This  is  often  the  cause  of 
a  fairly  constant  difference  of  0.25  to  0.50  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
morning  and  afternoon  milk  of  the  same  herd. 

All  statements  regarding  the  composition  of  cows'  milk  ordi- 
narily refer  to  the  product  of  complete  milking.  In  partial  or 
fractional  milking  the  first  portions  drawn  are  much  poorer  in 
fat  content  than  the  average,  and  the  last  portions,  or  "  strip- 
pings,"  are  much  richer. 

The  extreme  variations  in  composition  of  milk  from  cows 
apparently  normal  have  been  compiled  by  the  writer  elsewhere.^ 
Since  market  milk  is  nearly  always  the  mixed  product  of  many 
cows  and  often  of  many  herds,  a  knowledge  of  these  extremes  is 
for  practical  purposes  much  less  significant  than  is  a  knowledge 
of  the  usual  variations.  The  following  table  includes  a  state- 
ment of  (i)  the  variations  which  may  be  considered  not  unusual, 
(2)  an  estimate  of  average  composition  based  on  all  available 
data,  (3)  a  convenient  approximation  to  the  estimate  average 
which  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  most  purposes  and  is  generally 
used  in  estimates  of  the  food  value  of  milk. 

'  Methods  of  Organic  Analysis,  Revised  Edition,  page  351. 


MILK 


6i 


Table  2.     Composition  of  Milk;  Usual  Limits  and  Average 


Constituent 

Usual  Limits  of 

Estimated 

Convenient 

Variation 

Average 

Approximation 

Per  cent 

Per  cetU 

Per  cent 

Fat     ...      . 

3.0-6.0 

4.00 

4.0 

Protein    . 

3.0-4.0 

3-33 

3-3' 

Carbohydrate    . 

4.6-5.0 

4.85 

S.o. 

Ash     ...     . 

0.70-0.78 

0.72 

G.7 

Solids-not-fat    . 

8.5-9-5 

8.90 

9.0 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  fat  is  much  the  most  variable  con- 
stituent and  that  the  protein  varies  about  one  third  as  much  as 
the  fat.  In  general  the  variations  in  the  protein  content  are  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  fat.  Thus  genuine  milk  with  3  per  cent 
fat  averages  about  3  per  cent  protein  ;  with  4  per  cent  fat  about 
3.33  per  cent  protein ;  with  5  per  cent  fat  about  3.66  per  cent 
protein ;  with  6  per  cent  fat  about  4  per  cent  protein.  Such 
differences  in  fat  and  protein  content  are  usually  accompanied 
by  very  little  variation  in  the  percentages  of  milk  sugar  and  ash. 

Another  way  of  expressing  the  relationship  of  the  constituents 
is  that  the  proteins  usually  constitute  about  one  fourth  of  the 
total  solids,  the  remainder  of  the  fluctuations  in  total  solids 
being  almost  entirely  due  to  the  fat.^ 

Such  statements  as  the  above  express  average  relationships. 
It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they  will  hold  true  for  every  sample. 
Marked  departure  from  these  relationships  is,  however,  an  occa- 
sion for  suspicion  when  observed  in  market  milk,  because  such 
milk  is  nearly  always  the  mixed  product  of  an  entire  herd  (often 
of  several  herds)  and  is  therefore  not  normally  subject  to  such 
fluctuations  in  composition  as  is  the  milk  of  individual  cows. 

Another  fact  worthy  of  note  is  that  very  rarely  if  ever  are 
minimum  or  maximum  percentages  of  all  constituents  found  in' 
any  one  sample  of  genuine  milk.     For  this  reason  the  figures 

'  For  further  data  see  Methods  of  Organic  Analysis,  Revised  Edition,  pages  349- 
352. 


62  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

for  usual  limits  of  variation  in  solids-not-fat  in  the  above  table 
do  not  exactly  coincide  with  the  summation  of  the  corresponding 
data  for  proteins,  carbohydrate,  and  ash. 

In  many  cases  it  is  convenient  to  consider  the  solids  of  milk 
simply  in  terms  of  fat  and  of  solids-not-fat.  In  fact  this  is  usually 
considered  sufficient  in  the  formulation  of  legal  standards  of 
composition,  as  will  be  seen  below. 

Adulteration  and  Inspection 

Milk  may  be  deliberately  adulterated  or  it  may  become  an 
adulterated  product  (within  the  present  meaning  of  the  term) 
through  contamination  or  deterioration. 

The  principal  forms  of  deliberate  adulteration  to  which  milk 
is  subjected  are  watering,  skimming,  the  addition  of  preserva- 
tives, and  attempts  to  conceal  inferiority  by  the  use  of  artificial 
color  or  thickening  agents,  and  by  the  addition  of  sodium  bi- 
carbonate to  disguise  the  fact  that  the  milk  has  begun  to  sour. 

In  most  localities  all  these  practices  are  made  illegal  either 
by  specific  prohibition  or  by  some  general  provision  that  milk 
to  which  anything  has  been  added  or  from  which  anything  has 
been  abstracted  shall  be  deemed  adulterated. 

"Watering  is  of  course  the  simplest  form  of  adulteration  and 
is  objectionable  both  as  a  fraud  and  as  a  source  of  contamina- 
tion. A  large  part  of  the  contamination  of  milk  comes  from  the 
use  of  impure  water  in  washing  utensils,  etc.,  and  if  such  water 
is  added  to  the  milk  in  any  quantity,  the  contamination  will  of 
course  be  much  more  serious.  In  most  localities  the  watering 
of  milk  is  much  less  common  now  than  formerly. 

Skimming,  by  which  is  meant  either  the  removal  of  a  part 
of  the  cream  or  the  addition  of  skimmed  or  partially  skimmed 
milk,  is  probably  more  common  than  watering.  As  the  same 
farmer  often  sells  both  milk  and  cream,  the  temptation  to  remove 
a  part  of  the  cream  before  selling  the  milk  (especially  if  the  milk 
originally  contains  considerably  more  fat  than  the  law  requires) 


MILK  63 

is  obvious.  The  fact  that  some  state  standards  require  a  high 
content  of  soHds-not-fat  and  a  relatively  low  fat  content  con- 
stitutes an  incentive  to  partial  skimming. 

Artificial  color  is  occasionally  added  to  restore  the  yellow  tint 
of  milk  which  has  been  partially  skimmed  or  to  make  a  milk 
which  is  naturally  of  poor  quality  appear  richer  than  it  is. 

Addition  of  preservatives  is  not  as  common  now  as  formerly, 
at  least  in  cities  having  systematic  milk  inspection.  The 
preservatives  chiefly  used  are  formaldehyde  and  boric  acid  or 
borax.  At  present  these  preservatives  appear  to  be  less  com- 
monly sold  by  dairy  supply  houses,  and  their  use  is  largely  re- 
stricted to  small  towns  having  no  milk  inspection  and  to  hotels 
and  restaurants  which  may  add  preservatives  to  their  milk  after 
purchase  in  order  to  diminish  the  necessity  for  strict  refrigeration 
and  the  chances  of  souring  when  kept  on  hand  to  meet  an  uncer- 
tain demand.  An  investigation  in  Chicago  showed  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  cases  of  added  preservatives  in  the  samples 
of  milk  from  hotels  and  restaurants  than  in  the  samples  taken 
from  milk  dealers. 

Contaminated  or  deteriorated  milk  can  be  treated  as  adulter- 
ated under  that  clause  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  which  declares 
a  food  to  be  adulterate^  if  it  consists  in  whole  or  in  part  of  "  a 
filthy  decomposed  or  putrid  animal  or  vegetable  substance." 
As  will  be  evident  from  the  section  which  follows,  the  sanitary 
quality  as  well  as  the  chemical  composition  of  milk  is  now  re- 
garded as  a  proper  matter  for  standardization. 

The  conduct  of  inspection.  Practices  differ  greatly  in  regard 
to  milk  inspection.  Municipal  authorities  usually  have  wide 
discretion  in  the  matter,  under  their  general  "  police  powers," 
and  city  ordinances  often  go  much  farther  than  state  legislation 
in  attempts  to  control  the  milk  supply.  City  boards  of  health 
often  have  inspectors  in  the  country  to  visit  farms  and  receiving 
stations  as  well  as  in  the  city  to  inspect  the  milk  as  it  comes 
to  market  and  as  it  is  offered  for  sale. 


64 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


The  sanitary  conditions  of  production  and  handling  reported 
by  the  country  inspectors  may  be  made  the  basis  of  renewal  or 

revocation  of  the  per- 
mit to  sell  milk  in  the 
city  or  of  the  classi- 
fication or  designation 
under  which  it  may 
be  sold.  The  city  in- 
spectors seek  to  detect 
or  prevent  unsanitary 
practices  in  the  city  and 
the  sale  of  milk  which 
has  been  skimmed  or 
watered  or  is  other- 
wise adulterated  or  de- 
teriorated. 

Thermometer  and 
lactometer  tests.  As 
preliminary  tests  the 
city  milk  inspector  often 
takes  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  and  its  read- 
ing on  the  lactometer, 
which  is  merely  a  hy- 
drometer so  constructed 
as  to  cover  a  sufficient 
range  in  density  to  in- 
clude all  quahties  of 
milk.  Milk  showing 
too  high  a  temperature 
is  sometimes  destroyed 
forthwith.  In  other 
cases  the  high  tempera- 
ture is  construed  simply 


u 

3.  —  Lactometer 


•ff 


Fig.    3.  —  Lactometer    scales:    A,   hydrometer; 

B,  New  York  City  Board  of  Health  lactometer ; 

C,  Quevenne  lactometer.     (From  Wing's  MUk 
and  its  Products.) 


MILK  65 

as  requiring  a  laboratory  examination  for  bacteria.  A  low 
lactometer  reading  is  not  sufficient  in  itself  to  condemn  milk, 
but  aids  the  inspector  to  judge  whether  further  examination 
is  necessary. 

The  lactometer  may  be  graduated  to  read  specific  gravity 
or  on  an  arbitrary  scale.  The  New  York  Board  of  Health  lac- 
tometer has  an  arbitrary  scale  of  which  the  zero  point  coincides 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  i.ooo  and  the  100  point  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.029.  Figure  3  shows  the  different  lactometer  scales 
side  by  side. 

Whole  milk  normally  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.029  to  1.035  > 
usually  1.030  to  1.033,  ^^^  should  therefore  read  more  than  100 
on  the  New  York  Board  of  Health  lactometer. 

The  specific  gravity  or  lactometer  reading  of  milk  is  lowered 
either  by  addition  of  water  or  addition  of  cream;  but  milk 
which  is  naturally  rich  in  fat,  being  usually  rich  in  protein  also, 
ordinarily  has  a  higher  specific  gravity  or  lactometer  reading 
than  the  average.  If  in  addition  to  the  lactometer  reading  the 
viscosity  and  opacity  of  the  milk  be  observed  by  carefully  watch- 
ing the  lactometer  bulb  on  lifting  it  out  of  the  milk,  it  is 
possible  for  an  experienced  inspector  to  form  a  fairly  reliable 
impression  as  to  whether  the  milk  is  open  to  suspicion  and  should 
be  sampled  for  laboratory  analysis. 

Chemical  analysis  when  made  for  purposes  of  inspection 
consists  usually  in  determining  the  percentages  of  fat  and  of 
total  solids  or  solids-not-fat  and  testing  for  preservatives. 
(See  Methods  of  Organic  Analysis,  Revised  Edition,  Chapters 
XVII  and  XVIII.) 

The  sediment  test  consists  usually  in  straining  a  pint  of  the 
milk  through  a  cotton  disk  one  inch  in  diameter  and  then  noting 
the  appearance  of  the  disk,  which  may  be  pure  white,  light 
gray,  or  brown,  according  to  the  cleanness  of  the  milk.  The 
disks  can  easily  be  dried  and  mailed  to  the  farmer  or  milk  dealer 
concerned,  and  their  significance  may  be  appreciated  without  a 


66  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

knowledge  of  chemistry  or  bacteriology.  This  test  is  fully 
described  and  illustrated  in  Circular  of  Information  41,  of  the 
Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

The  bacteria  test  consists  in  mixing  a  known  small  volume  of 
the  milk  (previously  diluted  with  sterilized  water  if  necessary) 
with  a  nutrient  medium  in  a  flat-bottomed  glass  dish  (Petri 
plate),  keeping  covered  at  a  favorable  temperature  for  one  or 
two  days,  and  then  counting  the  number  of  colonies  as  an  indi- 
cation of  the  number  of  bacteria  originally  present.  These 
methods  are  fully  described  in  text  books  of  bacteriology,  and 
in  a  special  bulletin  of  the  American  PubHc  Health  Association. 

Standards  of  Purity 

Since  skimming  and  watering  are  the  two  chief  forms  of  adul- 
teration which  directly  affect  the  composition  and  food  value  of 
milk,  any  specific  standard  of  composition  should  set  a  mini- 
mum limit  for  fat  to  guard  against  skimming  and  a  minimum 
limit  for  solids-not-fat  to  guard  against  watering. 

The  National  law  sets  no  such  specific  standards  but  in  the 
administration  of  the  law  the  following  standard  proclaimed 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  on  recommendation  of  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  is  commonly 
followed : 

Milk  is  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion  obtained  by  the 
complete  milking  of  one  or  more  healthy  cows,  properly  fed 
and  kept,  excluding  that  obtained  within  fifteen  days  before 
and  ten  days  after  calving,  and  contains  not  less  than  8.5  per 
cent  of  solids-not-fat  and  not  less  than  3.25  per  cent  of  milk 
fat. 

Most  of  the  state  laws  definitely  prescribe  that  all  milk  offered 
for  sale  shall  contain  not  less  than  certain  percentages  of  fat  and 
of  total  solids  or  solids-not-fat. 

The  principal  state  standards  are  shown  in  Table  3 : 


MILK 


67 


Table  3.    State  Standards  for  Milk 


State 


Arkansas  .  .  . 
California  .  .  . 
Colorado  .  .  . 
Connecticut  .  . 
District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia  .... 
Hawaii  .... 
Idaho  .... 
Illinois  .... 
Indiana    .... 

Iowa 

Kansas  .... 
Kentucky  .  .  . 
Louisiana  .  .  . 
Maine  .... 
Maryland  .  .  . 
Massachusetts  .  . 
Michigan  .  .  . 
Minnesota  .  .  . 
Missouri  .  .  . 
Montana  .  .  . 
Nebraska  .  .  . 
New  Hampshire  . 
New  Jersey  .  . 
New  York  .  .  . 
Nevada  .  .  . 
North  Carolina 
North  Dakota  .    . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma  .  .  . 
Oregon  .... 
Pennsylvania  .  . 
Porto  Rico  .  . 
Rhode  Island  .  . 
South  Dakota  .  . 
Tennessee     .     .     . 


Fat 

Solids- 
not-fat 

Total 
SoLros 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

3-25 

8.5 

3-0 
3-0 
3-25 

8.5 

11.5 

8.5 

11.75 

3-5 

9.0 

12.5 

3-25 

8.5 

11-75 

3-25 

8.5 

11.75 

3-0 

8.5 

"•5 

3-2 

8.0 

II. 2 

3-0 

8.5 

"•5 

3-25 

8.5 

3-0 

12.0 

3-25 

8.5 

11.75 

3-25 

8.5 

3-5 

8.5 

3-25 

8.5 

11.75 

3-5 



12.5 

3-35 



12.15 

30 



12.5 

3-25 

13.0 

3-2S 

8.75 

12.0 

3-25 

8.5 

11.75 

3-0 

12.0 

3-0 

"S 

3-0 

"5 

3-25 

8.5 

11.75 

3-25 

8.5 

11.75 

3-0 

9.0 

12.0 

3-0 

12.0 

3-25 

8.5 

3-2 

9.0 

3-25 

12.0 

3-0 

9.0 

12.0 

2.5 

12.0 

3-5 

8.5 

35 

8.5 

68 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  3.     State  Standards  for  Milk  —  Continued 


State 


Utah    .    . 

Vermont  . 

Virginia    . 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Texas 


Fat 

SOLIDS- 
NOT-FAT 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

3-2 

9.0 

9-25 

3-2S 

8.5 

3-25 

8.7s 

3-0 

8.S 

3-2S 

8.S 

3-2S 

8.5 

Total 
Solids 


Per  cent 
12.0 
12.5  » 

11-75 
12.0 


*  During  May  and  June,  12.0  per  cent. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  considerable  diversity  of  standards 
among  the  states.  Since  the  fat  content  of  milk  is  so  variable 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  legal  minimum  of 
fat  is  readily  understood,  but  there  is  no  justification  in  the 
natural  composition  of  milk  for  setting  a  low  standard  for  fat 
and  at  the  same  time  a  high  standard  for  solids-not-fat,  or 
total  solids  as  is  still  done  in  several  states.  The  explanation  for 
such  disproportionate  standards  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
methods  of  milk  analysis  formerly  used  tended  to  underestimate 
the  fat  and  overestimate  the  other  solids. 

The  Commission  on  Milk  Standards  appointed  with  a  view 
to  securing  uniformity  of  requirements  among  the  different 
states  and  cities  of  the  United  States  has  recommended  the 
general  adoption  of  the  standard  calling  for  not  less  than  3.25 
per  cent  of  milk  fat  and  not  less  than  8.5  per  cent  of  milk 
solids-not-fat  as  proposed  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricul- 
tural Chemists. 

The  Commission  also  recommended  the  adoption  by  communi- 
ties of  regulations  providing  for  the  sale  of  milk  on  a  basis  of 
guaranteed  composition.  The  advantage  of  such  a  system  is 
apparent  from  the  fact  that  any  single  legal  minimum  must 


MILK  69 

necessarily  be  set  considerably  below  the  average  in  order  to 
provide  for  natural  variations  in  composition.  Average  milk 
and  milk  considerably  below  the  average  are  thus  equally  legal, 
though  of  a  very  different  value.  It  would  obviously  be  fairer 
both  to  producer  and  to  consumer  if  all  milk  could  be  sold  on 
the  basis  of  its  true  value. 

In  addition  to  standards  of  chemical  composition  several  com- 
munities have  adopted  sanitary  or  bacteriological  standards. 
Thus  milk  which  contains  visible  dirt  or  more  than  a  certain 
number  of  bacteria  may  be  forbidden  sale,  or  (as  in  the  case  of 
New  York  City)  a  maximum  temperature  may  be  prescribed 
on  the  ground  that  in  warm  milk  bacteria  multiply  so  rapidly 
as  to  make  it  a  "  decomposed  substance  "  if  not  an  actual  menace 
to  health.  In  the  past  such  sanitary  and  bacteriological  stand- 
ards as  have  existed  have  varied  much  with  the  locality  and 
have  generally  been  regarded  as  more  or  less  tentative. 

The  Commission  on  Milk  Standards  devoted  special  atten- 
tion to  the  matter  of  sanitary  and  bacteriological  standards  and 
recommended  the  following  classification  of  milk  in  which  the 
definition  of  each  class  includes  a  statement  of  the  maximum 
number  of  bacteria  to  be  permitted  and  of  the  sanitary  precau- 
tions to  be  prescribed. 

Classification  recommended  by  Commission  on  Milk  Standards 


Raw  milk.  Milk  of  this  class  shall  come  from  cows  free  from  disease  as 
determined  by  tuberculin  tests  and  physical  examinations  by  a  qualified 
veterinarian,  and  shall  be  produced  and  handled  by  employees  free  from 
disease  as  determined  by  medical  inspection  of  a  qualified  physician,  under 
sanitary  conditions  such  that  the  bacteria  count  shall  not  exceed  100,000 
per  cubic  centimeter  at  the  time  of  delivery  to  the  consumer.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  dairies  from  which  this  supply  is  obtained  shall  score  at  least 
80  on  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  score  card. 

Pasteurized  milk.  Milk  of  this  class  shall  come  from  cows  free  from  disease 
as  determined  by  physical  examinations  by  a  qualified  veterinarian  and  shall 


7©  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

be  produced  and  handled  under  sanitary  conditions  such  that  the  bacteria 
count  at  no  time  exceeds  200,000  per  cubic  centimeter.  Ail  milk  of  this 
class  shall  be  pasteurized  under  official  supervision,  and  the  bacteria  count 
shall  not  exceed  10,000  per  cubic  centimeter  at  the  time  of  delivery  to  the 
consumer.  It  is  recommended  that  dairies  from  which  this  supply  is  ob- 
tained should  score  65  on  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
score  card. 

(Note.  The  above  represents  only  the  minimum  standards  under  which 
milk  may  be  classified  in  grade  A.  The  commission  recognizes,  however, 
that  there  are  grades  of  milk  which  are  produced  under  unusually  good 
conditions,  in  especially  sanitary  dairies,  many  of  which  are  operated  under 
the  supervision  of  medical  associations.  Such  milks  clearly  stand  at  the 
head  of  this  grade.) 


Milk  of  this  class  shall  come  from  cows  free  from  disease  as  determined  by 
physical  examinations,  of  which  one  each  year  shall  be  by  a  qualified  veteri- 
narian, and  shall  be  produced  and  handled  under  sanitary  conditions  such 
that  the  bacteria  count  at  no  time  exceeds  1,000,000  per  cubic  centimeter. 
All  milk  of  this  class  shall  be  pasteurized  under  official  supervision,  and  the 
bacteria  count  shall  not  exceed  50,000  per  cubic  centimeter  when  delivered 
to  the  consumer. 

It  is  recommended  that  dairies  producing  grade  B  milk  should  be  scored 
and  that  the  health  departments  or  the  controlling  departments,  whatever 
they  may  be,  strive  to  bring  these  scores  up  as  rapidly  as  possible. 


Milk  of  this  class  shall  come  from  cows  free  from  disease  as  determined 
by  physical  examinations  and  shall  include  all  milk  that  is  produced  under 
conditions  such  that  the  bacteria  count  is  in  excess  of  1,000,000  per  cubic 
centimeter. 

All  milk  of  this  class  shall  be  pasteurized,  or  heated  to  a  higher  temperature, 
and  shall  contain  less  than  50,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  when  de- 
livered to  the  customer.  It  is  recommended  that  this  milk  be  used  for  cook- 
ing or  manufacturing  purposes  only. 

Whenever  any  large  city  or  community  finds  it  necessary,  on  account  of 
the  length  of  haul  or  other  peculiar  conditions,  to  allow  the  sale  of  grade  C 
milk,  its  sale  shall  be  surrounded  by  safeguards  such  as  to  insure  the  re- 
striction of  its  use  to  cooking  and  manufacturing  purposes. 


MILK  71 

The  above  recommendations  have  been  indorsed  by  the 
American  Public  Health  Association,  the  American  Medical 
Association,  and  the  Conference  of  State  and  Provincial  Boards 
of  Health  of  North  America. 

Detailed  Composition 

The  fat  of  milk  is  characterized  both  by  its  emulsified  form  and 
by  containing  5  to  7  per  cent  of  butyrin  which  when  split  yields 
butyric  acid,  the  volatile  acid  to  which  the  odor  of  rancid  butter 
is  largely  due.  Smaller  quantities  of  other  volatile  acids  are 
also  present  in  combination  as  fats.  While  these  acids  are  vola- 
tile when  free,  the  compounds  (glycerides)  in  which  they  occur 
in  milk  and  sound  butter  are  not  volatile. 

Of  the  three  substances  of  which  most  edible  fats  are  chiefly 
composed  —  palmatin,  stearin,  and  olein  —  the  amount  of 
palmatin  in  milk  fat  is  fairly  large ;  of  stearin  very  small ;  of 
olein  there  is  less  than  in  most  edible  fats. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  fat  is  more  fully  considered 
under  butter  in  Chapter  X. 

The  proteins  of  milk.  From  three  fourths  to  four  fifths  of 
the  nitrogenous  matter  of  milk  consists  of  caseinogen  (casein, 
calcium-casein),  while  most  of  the  remainder  is  in  the  form  of 
lactalbumin. 

Casein  or  caseinogen  is  the  best  known  of  the  phosphoproteins. 
The  chemical  relationship  between  the  caseinogen  (or  calcium- 
casein,  or  milk-casein)  of  normal  milk  and  the  casein  of  curd  as 
obtained  by  acidulating  the  milk  is  not  entirely  clear.  Studies 
of  the  composition  of  this  protein  have  been  made  upon  material 
purified  by  repeated  precipitation.  Its  elementary  composition 
is  about  as  follows:  carbon,  53.1  per  cent;  hydrogen,  7.0 
per  cent;  oxygen,  22.5  per  cent;  nitrogen,  15.8  per  cent; 
sulphur,  0.8  per  cent ;  phosphorus,  0.8  per  cent.  The 
amounts  of  amino  acids  which  have  been  obtained  from  it  by 
hydrolysis  are  shown  in  Table  4. 


72 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Lactalbumin  being  present  in  milk  in  so  much  smaller  quantity 
than  caseinogen  has  not  been  so  extensively  studied.  Its  prod- 
ucts of  hydrolysis  thus  far  determined  are  shown  in  Table  4. 
It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  the  amino  acids  probably  present 
have  not  yet  been  determined ;  it  is  also  probable  that  further 
study  will  show  larger  quantities  of  many  of  those  amino  acids 
for  which  figures  have  been  reported. 


Table  4.    Percentages  of  Amino  Acids  from  Milk  Proteins  ' 


Amino  Acid 


Glydn  .  . 
Alanin  .  . 
Valin  .  .  . 
Leucin  .  . 
Prolin  .  . 
Aspartic  acid 
Glutamic  acid 
Phenylalanin 
Tyrosin  .  . 
Serin  .  . 
Oxyprolin 
Histidin  .  . 
Arginin  .  . 
Lysin  .  .  . 
Tryptophan  . 
Cystin  .  . 
Ammonia 


Lactalbumin 

0.0 

2-5 
0.9 
19.4 
4.0 
i.o 

lO.I 

2.4 
4.9 


8.1 
30 

1-3 


By  comparison  with  the  corresponding  data  given  in  later 
chapters  it  will  be  seen  that  the  yields  of  several  of  the  more 
complex  amino  acids  such  as  tryptophan,  tyrosin,  and  lysin 
are  distinctly  higher  from  the  milk  proteins  than  from  food  pro- 
teins in  general ;  while  the  amino  acids  lacking  or  present  only 
in  small  quantity  in  milk  proteins  are  those  of  which  the  body 

'  In  general  the  highest  yield  of  each  amino  acid  is  given  since  it  is  known  that  the 
methods  used  tend  to  give  results  below  the  truth. 


MILK  73 

may  readily  derive  abundant  supplies  from  other  sources.  (See 
also  the  sections  on  nutritive  value  and  place  in  the  diet  in  this 
and  succeeding  chapters.) 

The  ash  constituents  of  milk  include  all  of  the  so-called  inor- 
ganic elements  necessary  to  the  normal  nutrition  of  man.  Some 
of  these  exist  in  the  milk  as  salts,  some  as  constituents  of  the 
organic  matter,  some  in  both  forms. 

Sulphur,  of  which  milk  contains  about  0.03  per  cent,  exists 
almost  entirely  as  a  constituent  of  the  milk  proteins. 

Phosphorus  constitutes  about  o.io  per  cent  of  the  fresh  weight 
of  milk  (equivalent  to  0.23  per  cent  phosphoric  acid)  and  is 
present  in  at  least  four  forms.  About  65  per  cent  of  the  phos- 
phorus of  milk  is  in  the  form  of  phosphate  in  the  sense  that  it 
is  precipitable  by  phosphate  reagents,  but  to  what  extent  this 
is  free  phosphate  and  to  what  extent  loosely  combined  with 
organic  matter  has  not  been  determined;  about  25  per  cent 
exists  as  an  essential  organic  constituent  of  the  casein  (the  latter 
containing  0.8  to  0.9  per  cent  of  phosphorus  after  having  been 
purified  by  dissolving  and  reprecipitating  until  ash-free) ;  about 
3  per  cent  is  in  the  form  of  lecithin ;  and  about  7  per  cent  is  in 
the  form  of  organic  compounds  of  other  types  (including  the 
so-called  "  nucleon  "  of  Siegfeld). 

Chlorine  exists  in  milk  in  the  form  of  sodium  chloride,  possibly 
in  part  also  as  potassium  chloride. 

The  base-forming  elements,  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium,  are  present  in  milk  in  slightly  greater  amounts  than 
would  be  necessary  to  neutralize  the  acids  obtainable  from  the 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  chlorine  present,  and  in  distinct  excess 
over  what  would  be  required  to  combine  with  the  ready-formed 
acid  radicles.  This  excess  of  base  is  combmed  in  part  with  the 
casein  and  in  part  with  citric  acid,  a  small  quantity  of  which  is 
a  normal  constituent  of  milk  and  is  counted  with  the  carbohy- 
drates in  the  usual  proximate  analysis.  The  percentages  of 
these  elements,  calculated  as  oxides,  in  average  cows'  milk  are 


74  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

as  follows:  calcium  oxide,  0.168  per  cent;  magnesium  oxide, 
0.019  per  cent ;  potassium  oxide,  0.171  per  cent ;  sodium  oxide, 
0.068  per  cent. 

Noticeable  here  are  the  high  calcium  content  as  compared 
with  other  foods  and  the  richness  of  milk  in  calcium  and  potas- 
sium as  compared  with  magnesium  and  sodium.  In  these  re- 
spects the  composition  of  milk  ash  resembles  that  of  the  ash  of 
the  animal  body. 

The  iron  of  milk  is  small  in  amount  (0.00024  per  cent)  but  of 
high  food  value.  It  will  be  considered  in  the  section  on  the 
nutritive  value  of  milk  and  the  place  of  milk  in  the  diet. 

Milk  sugar  and  minor  constituents.  Milk  sugar  (lactose) 
is  the  only  known  carbohydrate  of  milk.  The  small  amount  of 
citric  acid  already  mentioned  as  occurring  in  milk  is  usually 
counted  with  the  milk  sugar  as  carbohydrate. 

Summary  of  constituents.  The  following  tabular  summary 
(p.  7s)  is  added  in  order  that  the  constituents  already  men- 
tioned may  not  be  understood  to  be  the  only  substances 
which  milk  contains.  Readers  who  wish  further  information 
regarding  substances  which  can  be  merely  mentioned  here  are 
referred  to  the  books  and  journal  articles  listed  at  the  end  of 
the  chapter. 

Nutritive  Value  and  Place  in  the  Diet 

Average  milk  with  4  per  cent  fat  furnishes  about  314  Calories 
per  pound  or  675  Calories  per  quart.  Milk  naturally  so  poor 
as  to  contain  only  3  per  cent  fat  would  furnish  268  Calories  per 
pound;  natural  milk  with  5  per  cent  fat  would  furnish  360, 
and  that  with  6  per  cent  fat,  407  Calories  per  pound.  In  any 
of  these  cases  from  18  to  20  per  cent  of  the  Calories  would  be  fur- 
nished by  protein. 

The  quantitative  relations  between  protein  content  and  fat 
content  or  fuel  value  are  readily  altered  by  separating  the  "  top 
milk  "  or  cream  from  the  "  skim  milk."     Milk  skimmed  so  as 


MILK 


75 


Constituents  of  Milk 


Glycerides  of 
volatile 
acids 

Glycerides  of 
non-volatile 
acids 


Proteins 
Caseinogen 
Lactalbumin 
Lactoglobulin 
Fibrinogen 
Amino  acids 
Vitamincs 
Enzymes 
Fats 
Butyrin 
Caproin 
Caprylin 
Caprin 
Laurin 
Myristin 
Palmitin 
Stearin 
Olein  [ 

Lipoids  (fatlikc  substances) 
Lecithin 
Cholesterin 

Probably  other  lipoids 
Care  tin  (lipochrome)  . 

Milk  Sugar 

Citric  acid 

Ash  Constituents 
Sulphur 

Phosphorus  (calc.  as  P2O5) 
Chlorine 

Sodium  (calc.  as  Na20) 
Potassium  (calc.  as  K2O) 
Calcium  (calc.  as  CaO) 
Magnesium  (calc.  as  MgO) 
Iron 
[odine 
Water 


Per  cent 
.       3-3 


4.0 


4.8 


0.7 


87.1 
lOC.O 


76  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

to  contain  only  i  per  cent  fat  would  yield  about  200  Calories 
per  pound  and  protein  would  furnish  approximately  one  third 
of  the  Calories ;  while  a  thin  cream  obtained  from  the  same 
milk  and  containing  10  per  cent  fat  would  yield  about  550  Cal- 
ories per  pound,  of  which  only  one  tenth  of  the  Calories  would 
be  furnished  by  protein. 

Even  from  the  standpoint  of  gross  proximate  composition 
and  fuel  value,  milk  is  a  fairly  economical  food,  especially  when 
compared  with  other  foods  of  animal  origin,  a  quart  of  milk 
being  approximately  equivalent  to  a  pound  of  steak  '  or  to  eight 
or  nine  eggs. 

Such  a  comparison,  however,  fails  to  do  justice  to  the  true 
nutritive  value  of  milk,  which  is  largely  due  to  the  peculiar  nature 
of  its  constituents. 

The  carbohydrate  of  milk  (lactose)  is  already  in  solution  and 
like  other  sugars  does  not  require  the  action  of  the  salivary 
or  pancreatic  juice,  but  only  of  the  intestinal  juice,  for  its  diges- 
tion. It  has  the  advantage  over  sucrose  and  glucose  of  being 
less  susceptible  to  fermentation  and  less  liable  to  irritate  the 
stomach. 

The  fat  of  milk  is  already  emulsified  and  so  is  more  readily 
available  to  the  body  than  the  fats  of  other  common  foods  except 
eggs.  The  fact  that  milk  fat  is  fluid  at  body  temperature  also 
aids  its  digestibility.  Whether  the  presence  of  glycerides  of 
the  volatile  acids  is  of  any  special  advantage  aside  from  flavor 
is  not  clear. 

The  proteins  of  milk  are  of  high  nutritive  value.     When 

'  That  the  standard  tables  of  analyses  give  an  exaggerated  impression  of  the  fuel 
value  of  meats,  especially  beef,  is  explained  in  Chapter  VI  preceding  Table  12.  In 
that  table  it  will  be  seen  that  sirloin  steak  as  purchased  is  given  a  fuel  value  of  q6o 
Calories  per  pound,  but  this  includes  all  the  fat  originally  belonging  with  the  cut, 
and  two  thirds  of  the  Calories  come  from  the  fat.  If,  as  is  often  the  case,  the 
butcher  and  consumer  remove  one  half  or  more  of  the  fat  originally  present,  then  the 
steak  as  actually  eaten  furnishes  not  over  640  Calories  for  each  pound  of  material 
purchased. 


MILK  77 

milk  is  taken  under  normal  conditions  (even  in  relatively  large 
quantity  and  in  connection  with  only  a  small  amount  of  bread 
or  other  solid  food),  about  97  to  98  per  cent  of  the  milk  protein 
is  digested  and  absorbed.  Numerous  recent  digestion  and  me- 
tabolism experiments  indicate  that  under  normal  conditions  it 
is  as  completely  digested  and  absorbed  as  any  of  the  food  pro- 
teins, and  has  the  advantage  of  not  containing  the  substances 
which  yield  uric  acid  in  the  body,  nor  being  readily  susceptible 
to  intestinal  putrefaction. 

Not  only  do  the  milk  proteins  show  a  high  coefficient  of  diges- 
tibility, but  metabolism  experiments  and  clinical  observations 
show  that  milk  furnishes  a  form  of  protein  food  particularly 
adapted  to  bring  about  a  storage  of  protein  in  the  body.  This 
may  be  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  casein  contains  phosphorus 
as  an  essential  constituent,  since  Rosemann  has  shown  that 
storage  of  both  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  is  more  readily  ob- 
tained with  a  diet  of  phosphoproteins  than  with  mixtures  of 
simple  proteins  and  inorganic  phosphates,  but  it  is  doubtless 
more  largely  due  to  the  amino-acids  content  of  the  milk  proteins. 

If  the  data  on  page  72  be  compared  with  the  corresponding 
data  for  proteins  of  other  foods  as  given  in  later  chapters, 
(Tables  9,  18,  26,  38,  41,  44),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  milk  pro- 
teins are  relatively  rich  in  the  amino-acid  radicles  of  more  com- 
plex structure,  which  apparently  are  not  readily  formed  in  the 
body,  and  especially  tryptophan  and  lysin,  which  are  known  to 
play  an  especially  important  part  in  nutrition  and  growth. 
The  ash  constituents  of  milk  are  important  not  only  for  their 
property  of  being  adequate  in  the  absence  of  all  other  ash 
constituents,  as  in  the  experiments  just  cited,  but  also  in  their 
bearing  upon  the  adequacy  of  the  phosphorus,  calcium,  and  iron 
supply  in  a  mixed  diet. 

Phosphorus  compounds  are  present  in  milk  in  relative  abun- 
dance and  in  a  variety  of  forms,  as  was  shown  in  the  discussion 
of  the  chemical  composition  of  milk  (page  73). 


78  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Calcium  is  present  in  still  greater  relative  abundance.  Milk 
contains  slightly  more  calcium,  volume  for  volume,  than  does 
limewater.  As  a  rule  the  calcium  content  of  the  diet  depends 
mainly  upon  the  amount  of  milk  consumed.  In  family  dietaries 
where  ordinary  quantities  of  milk  are  used,  the  milk  is  apt  to 
furnish  about  two  thirds  of  the  total  calcium  of  the  diet.  With- 
out milk  it  is  unlikely  that  the  diet  will  be  as  rich  in  calcium  as 
is  desirable  either  for  the  child  or  for  the  adult. 

Iron  is  present  in  milk  in  only  small  quantity,  but  evidently 
in  a  form  exceptionally  favorable  for  assimilation.  Notwith- 
standing the  low  iron  content,  a  diet  of  milk  and  white  bread 
appears  to  be  adequate  for  the  maintenance  of  iron  equilibrium 
in  man,  whereas  white  bread  alone  in  larger  quantity  or  a  diet 
of  bread  and  iron-free  protein  is  much  less  eflScient. 

So  far  as  our  present  knowledge  indicates,  this  favorable  influ- 
ence of  milk  upon  the  iron  metabolism  in  spite  of  the  small 
amount  of  iron  which  it  contains  would  seem  to  be  due  in  part 
to  the  particular  organic  form  of  combination  in  which  the  iron 
is  present  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  it  is  associated  with  a  large 
amount  of  calciimi  which  in  some  way  appears  to  be  favorable 
to  the  economy  of  iron  in  the  organism.^ 

Recent  research  makes  it  plain  that  milk  contains  substances 
other  than  the  known  proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates,  and  salts 
which  perform  important  nutritive  functions  especially  in  rela- 
tion to  growth.  Osborne  and  Mendel  in  their  feeding  experi- 
ments with  isolated  foodstuffs  found  that  when  the  fats  and 
proteins  are  removed  from  milk  the  residue  is  more  efficient  in 
nutrition  than  is  a  mixture  of  milk  sugar  and  salts.  Still  more 
recently  it  has  been  found  both  by  McCullom  and  Davis  and  by 
Osborne  and  Mendel  that  milk  (or  butter)  contains  a  fatlike 
(or  fat-soluble)  substance,  whose  presence  or  absence  in  an 
otherwise  adequate  diet  determines  the  continuance  or  cessation 

'  For  discussion  of  the  iron  content  of  milk  in  relation  to  infant  feeding  S2e 
Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition,  Chapter  IX,  pages  253-255. 


MILK 


79 


of  growth  in  young  animals.  Hopkins  showed  that  even  small 
amounts  of  milk  exert  a  very  marked  influence  upon  the  growth 
of  young  animals  kept  on  a  diet  of  artificially  "  purified  "  food 
materials.  Some  of  Hopkins'  results  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying cuts.  Figure  4  shows  the  growth  curves  of  rats  with 
and  without  a  small 
amount  of  milk  when 
the  rest  of  the  diet 
was  of  artificially  puri- 
fied food.  Figure  5 
shows  the  results  of 
a  similar  experiment 
in  which  on  the  i8th 
day  the  milk  was 
transferred  from  one 
set  of  rats  to  the 
other.  Note  in  both 
cases  the  failure  of 
growth  on  the  diet 
of  artificially  purified 
foodstuffs  alone  and 
the  rapid  growth  when 
a  small  amount  of 
milk  was  fed. 

Taking  into  con- 
sideration the  many 
and  important  factors 
which  increase  the 
value  of  milk  as  food, 
above  that  indicated 
by  its  mere  proximate  composition  and  fuel  value,  and  also  the 
fact  that  it  requires  no  preparation  and  has  no  waste,  it  is  be- 
lieved to  be  true  economy  to  make  liberal  use  of  milk  in  the  diet 
so  long  as  the  milk  does  not  cost  more  than  twice  as  much  in 


30 
0 

Fig.  4 


4-0 

Growth  curves  of  rats.  Lower  curve  six 
rats  on  artificial  diet  alone.  Upper  curve  six 
similar  rats  receiving  in  addition  2  cc.  of  milk 
each  per  day.  Abscissae  time  in  days ;  ordi- 
nates  average  weight  in  grams.  (Courtesy  of 
Dr.  F.  Gowland  Hopkins.) 


8o 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


proportion  to  the  energy  it  furnishes  as  the  average  of  the  food 
eaten.  On  this  basis  families  who  must  live  on  as  little  as  1 6  to 
20  cents  per  person  per  day  for  food  may  wisely  use  reasonable 
quantities  of  milk  at  8  to  10  cents  per  quart,  balancing  this  by 
a  larger  use  of  such  food  as  bread,  which  furnishes  energy  much 


90 


hO 


40 


2S 


SO 


Fig.  s.  —  Growth  curves  of  rats.  Lower  curve  (up  to  i8th  day)  represents  rats 
on  purified  food ;  upper  curve  similar  rats  having  3  cc.  milk  each  per  day  in 
addition  to  this  food.  On  the  i8th  day,  marked  by  the  vertical  dotted  line, 
the  milk  was  transferred  from  one  set  to  the  other.  Abscissae  time  in  days ; 
ordinates  average  weight  in  grams.    (Courtesy  of  Dr.  F.  Gowland  Hopkins.) 


more  cheaply  than  the  average  food  of  the  diet.  Those  who  are 
able  to  spend  30  to  40  cents  per  person  per  day  for  food  are 
practicing  true  economy  when  they  buy  and  use  liberally  the 
best  milk  obtainable  even  at  a  price  of  1 5  to  20  cents  per  quart. 


MILK  8 1 

Especially  in  the  feeding  of  children  should  milk  be  used 
freely,  because  of  its  many  advantages  as  a  "  tissue-building" 
and  "  growth-promoting  "  food.  "  A  quart  of  milk  a  day  for 
every  child  "  is  a  good  rule  easy  to  remember. 

In  no  other  way  can  the  food  habits  how  prevailing,  especially 
in  the  cities,  be  so  certainly  and  economically  improved  as  by 
a  more  liberal  use  of  good  milk. 

REFERENCES » 
I 

Buchanan.     Household  Bacteriology. 

Conn.     Bacteria  in  Milk  and  its  Products. 

ECKLES.     Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production. 

Fariungton  and  Woll.     Testing  Milk  and  its  Products. 

Leach.     Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

Richmond.     Dairy  Chemistry. 

RosENAU.     Milk  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Public  Health.    United  States  Public 

Health  Service,  Hygienic  Laboratory,  Bulletin  56. 
RosENAU.     The  Milk  Question. 
Rothschild.     Bibliographia  Lactaria. 
Savage.     Milk  and  the  Public  Health. 
Sherman.     Methods  of  Organic  Analysis. 
SoMMERPELD.     Handbuch  der  Milchkunde. 
Stohmann.     Milch  und  Molkerei-produkte. 
SwiTHiNBANK  and  Neumann.     Bacteriology  of  Milk. 
Van  Slyke.     Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk  and  Milk  Products. 
Wing.    Milk  and  its  Products. 

II 

Alvord.  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  isth  Annual  Report,  pages  137-200  (1899). 

Pearson.  Market  Milk :  A  Plan  for  its  Improvement.  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Reprint  from  17th 
Annual  Report  (1901). 

*  The  first  group  (I)  contains  books  (and  a  few  of  the  more  comprehensive 
bulletins)  arranged  alphabetically  by  authors.  The  second  group  (II)  contains  con- 
tributions to  scientific  journals  and  other  periodicals,  reports,  bulletins,  etc.,  ar- 
ranged chronologically.  Similar  lists  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  chapters 
which  follow. 
o 


8.2  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

Alvord.  Statistics  of  the  Dairy.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  55  (1903). 

Sherman.  On  the  Composition  of  Cows'  Milk.  Journal  of  the  American 
Chemical  Society,  Vol.  25,  pages  132-142  (1903). 

Conn  and  Esten.  The  Effect  of  Different  Temperatures  in  Determining 
the  Species  of  Bacteria  which  Grow  in  Milk.  Sixteenth  Annual  Report 
of  the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  pages  27-88 
(1904). 

Jordan.  Analyses  of  Chicago  Market  Milk  - —  A  Report  by  the  Health 
and  Sanitation  Committee  of  the  Civic  Federation  of  Chicago,  July, 
1904. 

Marshall  and  Wright.  The  Care  and  Handling  of  Milk.  Michigan 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  221,  2  parts  (1905). 

Pennington  and  McClintoch.  A  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Pasteurized 
and  Clean  Milk  of  Philadelphia.  American  Journal  of  the  Medical 
Sciences,  Vol.  130,  pages  140-150  (1905). 

Frear.  American  Milk  and  Milk  Standards.  Proceedings  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  loth  Annual 
Convention,  pages  172-194  (1906). 

Pearson.  Facts  about  Milk.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  42  (1906). 

Sherman.  Seasonal  Variations  in  the  Composition  of  Cows'  Milk.  Journal 
of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  28,  pages  1719-1723  (1906). 

Sanitary  Milk  Production.  Report  of  a  Conference  appointed  by  the 
Commissioners  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  114 
(1907). 

CoiT.  The  Origin,  General  Plan,  and  Scope  of  the  Medical  Milk  Commis- 
sion. Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  of  Medical  Milk  Com- 
missions, Vol.  I,  pages  10-17  (1908). 

Haecker.  Investigation  in  Milk  Production.  Minnesota  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  106,  pages  147-169  (1908). 

Kastle.  On  the  Available  Alkali  in  the  Ash  of  Human  and  Cows'  Milk  and 
its  Relation  to  Infant  Nutrition.  American  Journal  of  Physiology, 
Vol.  22,  pages  284-308  (1908). 

Pennington.  Bacterial  Growth  and  Chemical  Changes  in  Milk  kept  at 
Low  Temperatures.  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages 
353-393  (1908). 

Van  Slyke.  Conditions  affecting  the  Proportions  of  Fat  and  Proteins  in 
.  Cows'  Milk.  Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  30, 
pages  1166-1186  (1908). 


MILK  83 

CoLWELL  and  Sherman.  Chemical  Evidence  of  Peptonization  in  Raw  and 
Pasteurized  Milk.  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages  247- 
251  (1909). 

American  Public  Health  Association.  Standard  Methods  for  the  Bacterial 
Examination  of  Milk.  American  Journal  of  Public  Hygiene,  August, 
19 10.     Also  available  in  reprint  form. 

Harding,  Wilson,  and  Smith.  The  Modern  Milk  Pail.  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  326  (1910). 

Kerr.  The  History,  Development,  and  Statistics  of  Milk  Charities  in  the 
United  States.  United  States  Public  Health  Service,  Public  Health 
Reports,  Vol.  25,  pages  1451-1467  (1910). 

Lane  and  Parks.  Improved  Methods  for  the  Production  of  Market  Milk 
by  Ordinary  Dairies.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  158  (191  o). 

Proceedings,  Conference  on  Milk  Problems  held  in  New  York  City,  December, 
1910.     Published  by  the  New  York  Milk  Committee  (1910-1911). 

Ayers  and  Johnson.  Bacteriology  of  Commercially  Pasteurized  and  Raw 
Market  Milk.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  126  (1911). 

ECKLES  and  Reed.  Causes  of  Variation  in  Milk  Production  by  Dairy  Cows. 
Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Research  Bulletin  2  (191 1). 

Fingerling.  Influence  of  Food  Poor  in  Calcium  and  Phosphorus  upon 
Milk  Production.  Landwirtschaftliches  Versuchs-Stationen,  Vol.  75, 
pages  1-152  (1911). 

Harding.  Publicity  and  Payment  based  on  Quality  as  Factors  in  improv- 
ing a  City  Milk  Supply.  New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  337  (1911). 

Koehler  and  Tonney.  The  Control  of  Pasteurization.  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association,  Vol.  56,  pages  713-718  (191 1). 

LiNDSEY.  Influence  of  Protein  Feeding  on  Milk  Production.  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Report  23,  Part  3,  pages  86-121 
(1911). 

LuxwoLDA.  Growth  and  Action  of  Certain  Milk  Bacteria  at  Dififerent 
Temperatures.  Centralblatt  fur  Bakteriologie  und  Parasitenkunde, 
II  Abth.,  Vol.  31,  pages  129-175  (1911). 

MiLNER.  The  Use  of  Milk  as  Food.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Farmers'  Bulletin  363  (191 1). 

New  York  Milk  Committee.  Completion  of  a  Successful  Practical  Experi- 
ment in  Milk  Production.     5th  Annual  Report,  pages  25-30  (191 1). 

North.  Pasteurization  of  Milk  in  the  Bottle  on  a  Commercial  Scale. 
Medical  Record,  July  15,  1911. 


84  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ScHOLBERG  and  Wallis.  Chemical  Changes  produced  in  Milk  by  Bacteria 
and  Their  Relation  to  the  Epidemic  Diarrhoea  of  Infants.  Local 
Governments  Board's  Medical  Officers'  Report,  191 1,  pages  504-543 
(1911). 

Whitaker.  The  Extra  Cost  of  Producing  Clean  Milk.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  170 
(1911). 

Ayers.  The  Pasteurization  of  Milk.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  184  (191 2). 

Hopkins.  Influence  of  Accessory  Constituents  of  Diet  upon  Growth. 
Journal  of  Physiology,  Vol.  44,  pages  425-460  (191 2). 

Jordan.  The  Case  for  Pasteurization.  Journal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  Vol.  59,  pages  1450-1457  (191 2). 

New  York  Milk  Committee.  Infant  Mortality  and  Milk  Stations,  Special 
Report  (191 2). 

Report  of  the  Commission  on  Milk  Standards.  United  States  Public  Health 
Service,  Public  Health  Reports,  Reprint  No.  78  (191 2). 

Rogers.  Bacteria  in  Milk.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  490  (191 2). 

Rogers  and  Davis.  Methods  of  Classifying  the  Lactic  Acid  Bacteria. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Bulletin  154  (191 2). 

Rogers.  Directions  for  the  Home  Pasteurization  of  Milk.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  197 
(1912). 

Schorer.  Experimental  Studies  on  Milk,  with  Especial  Reference  to  the 
Uniformity  of  Different  Grades  of  Milk  and  the  Effects  of  Storage  upon 
Certified,  Inspected,  and  Pasteurized  Milks.  Journal  of  Infectious 
Diseases,  Vol.  ii,  pages  295-337  (191 2). 

Ayers  and  Johnson.  A  Study  of  the  Bacteria  which  Survive  Pasteuriza- 
tion. United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Bulletin  161  (1913). 

Eckles  and  Shaw.  Influence  of  Breed  and  Individuality  and  the  Stage  of 
Lactation,  upon  the  Composition  and  Properties  of  Milk.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulle- 
tins 155,  156,  157  (1913). 

Hopkins  and  Neville.  Note  concerning  the  Influence  of  Diets  upon 
Growth.     Biochemical  Journal,  Vol.  7,  pages  97-99  (1913)- 

Funk.  An  Attempt  to  Estimate  the  Vitamine-Fraction  in  Milk.  Bio- 
chemical Journal,  Vol.  7,  pages  211-213  (1913). 

Lythgoe.    Quality  of  the  Massachusetts  Milk  Supply  as  shown  by  the  In- 


MILK  85 

spection  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.     Journal  of  Industrial  and  En- 
gineering Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages  922-927  (1913). 
ScHRYVER.     On  the  Clotting  of  Milk.     Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society, 

London,  Series  B,  Vol.  86,  pages  460-481  (1913). 
United  States  Public  Health  Service.     Second  Report  of  Commission  on 

Milk  Standards.     Public  Health  Reports,  Vol.  38,  pages  1733-1756 

(August  22,  1913). 
Wing.     Milking   Machines :    Their   Sterilization   and   their   Efficiency  in 

Producing   Clean   Milk.     Cornell   Experiment   Station,   Circular    18, 

pages  65-74  (1913). 
BowEN.    The  Cost  of  Pasteurizing  Milk  and  Cream.    United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  85  (1914). 
KxTOLiCH  and  Sachs.     Biological  Reactions  of  Raw  and  Cooked  Milk. 

Zeitschrift    fur    Immunitatsforschung    und    experimentelle   Therapie, 

Vol.  20,  pages  317-335  (1914)- 
Palmer  and  Eckles.     Carotin,  the  Principal  Natural  Yellow  Pigment  of 

Milk  Fat.     Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  17,  pages   191-250 

(1914). 
Palmer  and  Coolidge.     Lactochrome,  the  Yellow  Pigment  of  Milk  Whey. 

Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  17,  pages  251-264  (1914). 
Schroeder.     Dirt  Sediment  Testing  —  A  Factor  in  Obtaining  Clean  Milk. 

American  Journal  of  Public  Health,  Vol.  4,  pages  50-64  (1914). 
TiLLMANNS,  Splittgerber  and  RiFFERT.     Determination  and  Significance 

of  the  Ammonia  Content  of  Milk.     Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der 

Nahrungs  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  27,  pages  59-76  (1914). 


CHAPTER  IV 
CHEESE   AND    MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS 

Cheese 

Cheese  was  probably  the  first  product  manufactured  from 
milk  and  the  first  form  in  which  milk  was  preserved  for  future 
use. 

It  has  for  centuries  been  an  important  article  of  diet  in  many 
countries,  and  is  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms.  A  recent 
compilation  by  Doane  and  Lawson  describes  no  less  than  350 
varieties  of  cheese. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  making  of  cheese 
was  a  household  or  farm  industry.  The  first  cheese  factory  was 
started  by  Jesse  Williams,  a  farmer  of  Oneida  County,  New 
York,  who,  finding  that  his  cheese  sold  readily  at  more  than  the 
average  price,  began  in  185 1  to  buy  the  milk  of  his  neighbors 
and  manufacture  cheese  from  it  as  well  as  from  the  milk  pro- 
duced on  his  own  farm.  Within  fifteen  years  his  example  had 
been  followed  to  such  an  extent  that  there  were  about  five 
hundred  cheese  factories  in  New  York  State  alone. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  1850  there  was  made  in  the  United 
States  about  100,000,000  pounds  of  cheese,  all  of  it  on  farms 
or  in  the  household ;  in  1900,  about  300,000,000  pounds,  of  which 
96  to  97  per  cent  was  made  in  factories. 

The  census  of  manufactures  of  1909  (which  of  course  would 
not  include  the  cheese  made  on  farms)  estimates  the  production 
for  the  United  States  at  about  311,000,000  pounds  worth  at 
wholesale  at  the  factory  $43,000,000.     The  amount  of  cheese 

86 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS       87 


88  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

imported  exceeded  that  exported  by  about  29,000,000  pounds. 
The  cheese  consumption  in  this  country  was  therefore  about 
3^  to  4  pounds  per  person  per  year,  a  low  figure  in 
comparison  with  the  amounts  of  meat  and  butter  consumed. 
During  the  past  few  years  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  has  given  considerable  attention  to  the  cheese 
industry  and  to  the  use  of  cheese  as  a  food,  and  it  is  probable 
that  this  will  result  in  a  larger  per  capita  consumption  of  cheese 
for  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Cheese  is  roughly  divided  into  two  main  types :  the  hard 
cheeses  such  as  Cheddar,  Edam,  Emfnental  (or  Swiss),  Par- 
mesan and  Roquefort;  and  the  soft  cheeses  such  as  Brie, 
Camembert,  Gorgonzola,  Limburg,  Neufchatel,  and  Stilton. 

Much  the  largest  part  of  the  cheese  made  in  this  country  is 
of  the  type  of  the  Cheddar  cheese  and  is  therefore  properly 
known  as  American  Cheddar  cheese,  although  frequently  called 
simply  "  American  cheese  "  or,  in  the  trade,  "  standard  factory 
cheese."  In  addition  to  this  standard  type  of  cheese  smaller 
quantities  of  other  types  are  made.  Some  New  York  factories 
make  cheeses  of  the  Brie,  Camembert,  and  Neufchatel  types, 
while  cheeses  of  the  Swiss  and  of  the  Limburg  types  are  made 
in  Wisconsin. 

The  principal  importations  of  cheese  into  the  United  States 
are  of  Parmesan  and  Gorgonzola  cheese  from  Italy ;  Emmental 
cheese  from  Switzerland;  Roquefort,  Camembert,  and  Brie, 
from  France;  and  Edam  cheese  from  Holland.  Many  other 
varieties  are  imported  in  small  amounts.  Since  these  cheeses 
are  imported  largely  as  delicacies,  they  are  more  costly  than 
standard  American  cheese. 

The  chief  cheese-producing  states  are  New  York  and  Wiscon- 
sin, the  main  cheesemaking  centers  very  nearly  coinciding  with 
the  regions  having  greatest  numbers  of  dairy  cows  as  shown  on 
the  accompanying  map  (Fig.  6). 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS       89 

Manufacture  of  American  Cheddar  Cheese 

This  process  is  divided  into  several  fairly  distinct  steps  as 
follows :  (i)  inspection  of  milk,  (2)  ripening  of  milk,  (3)  addition 
of  color  —  when  color  is  used,  (4)  coagulating  the  milk,  (5)  cut- 
ting the  curd,  (6)  stirring  and  heating  the  curd,  (7)  removing 
whey,  (8)  cheddaring  the  curd,  (9)  milling  the  curd,  (10)  salting 
and  pressing  the  curd,  (11)  ripening  or  curing  the  cheese. 

Inspection  of  milk.  Each  can  of  milk  received  for  cheesemak- 
ing  should  be  examined  for  acidity,  dirt,  and  abnormal  flavors 
(odor  or  taste).  Sometimes  a  rapid  examination  by  the  senses 
of  sight  and  smell  is  deemed  sufficient;  sometimes  a  roughly 
quantitative  determination  of  the  acidity  is  made.  When  the 
cheesemaker  is  troubled  with  abnormal  fermentation  or  defec- 
tive curd,  it  may  be  necessary  for  him  to  make  a  test  of  each 
farmer's  milk  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  fermentation  which 
it  shows  and  of  the  curd  which  it  yields,  in  order  that  the  par- 
ticular milk  which  is  responsible  for  the  trouble  may  be  located 
and  excluded. 

Ripening  of  milk.  This  consists  in  keeping  the  milk  at  about 
86°  F.  (30°  C.)  until  the  desired  amount  of  lactic  acid  has  formed. 
"  Starters,"  consisting  of  commercial  cultures  of  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria or  of  milk  in  active  lactic  acid  fermentation,  are  sometimes 
added  to  facilitate  the  ripening  process.  The  lactic  acid  is 
important  in  its  influence  on  the  operations  of  cheesemaking 
and  its  presence  also  tends  to  repress  abnormal  fermentations. 
The  proper  degree  of  ripeness  is  judged  either  by  titrating  for 
acidity  or  by  testing  a  portion  of  the  milk  with  rennet  to  see 
whether  it  coagulates  as  readily  as  is  desired.  Acidity  equiva- 
lent to  0.20  per  cent  of  lactic  acid  usually  marks  the  completion 
of  the  ripening  process. 

Addition  of  color.  When  coloring  matter  is  used  in  cheese- 
making,  it  should  be  added  to  the  ripened  milk  just  before 
coagulating  it  with  rennet. 


90  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Coagulating  the  milk.  Rennet  is  the  most  useful  reagent  for 
the  precipitation  of  the  curd,  that  prepared  from  the  calves' 
stomachs  being  most  highly  prized  for  cheesemaking.  Rennet 
is  now  prepared  on  a  large  scale  and  is  purchased  from  the 
makers  for  use  in  the  cheese  industry.  The  quality  of  the  rennet 
is  very  important,  as  an  inferior  grade  gives  a  bad  taste  to  the 
cheese.  The  amount  of  rennet  to  be  added  depends,  of  course, 
upon  the  strength  of  the  preparation,  but  should  be  sufficient 
so  that  when  mixed  with  the  milk  and  kept  at  84°-86°  F.  the 
milk  will  be  curdled  in  15  to  20  minutes  if  it  is  to  be  used  for 
a  quick-curing  cheese,  and  in  30  to  40  minutes  for  a  slow-curing 
cheese.  The  rennet  extracts  commonly  used  are  added  in  the 
proportion  of  from  2  to  5  ounces  per  1000  pounds  of  milk.  Be- 
fore adding,  the  extract  should  be  diluted  with  40  times  its 
volume  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  85-90°  F.  so  as  to  prevent 
the  production  of  a  lumpy  curd.  Previous  to  adding  the  rennet 
the  milk  is  thoroughly  stirred  in  order  to  distribute  the  fat  evenly, 
and  the  rennet  is  added  evenly  and  slowly  with  constant  stirring, 
which  is  continued  for  several  minutes.  After  this,  the  milk  is 
stirred  gently  near  the  surface  to  prevent  separation  of  cream. 
All  stirring  is  stopped  as  soon  as  (or  before)  coagulation  begins, 
and  the  milk  is  then  left  covered  and  undisturbed  while  the  coag- 
ulation gradually  continues  until  the  whole  mass  forms  one 
coherent  curd  and  is  ready  for  cutting. 

Cutting  the  curd.  In  order  that  the  whey  may  be  separated 
it  is  necessary  that  the  curd  be  cut  into  pieces ;  the  smaller  the 
pieces  of  curd,  the  more  rapidly  will  the  whey  escape.  As  soon 
as  the  curd  is  formed  it  tends  to  contract  and  force  out  a  portion 
of  the  whey.  By  cutting  the  curd  the  surface  from  which  the 
whey  can  exude  is  increased  and  so  the  separation  of  the  whey 
from  the  curd  goes  on  much  more  rapidly.  The  time  for  cutting 
the  curd  is  important  and  is  determined  by  the  skill  and  experi- 
ence of  the  cheesemaker.  If  the  curd  is  cut  when  it  is  too  soft, 
there  may  be  a  large  loss  of  fat,  with  a  resulting  decrease  in  the 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS       9 1 

yield  and  quality  of  the  cheese.  If  the  curd  is  allowed  to  be- 
come too  hard  before  cutting,  the  whey  is  removed  with  greater 
difficulty ;  and  if  incompletely  removed,  a  cheese  of  low  quality 
results.  The  cutting  is  accomplished  by  drawing  specially 
devised  cutting  knives  through  the  mass  of  curd,  both  horizon- 
tally and  vertically,  so  as  to  cut  it  into  cubes  of  one  quarter  to 
one  half  inch  size. 

Stirring  and  heating  the  curd.  As  soon  as  the  curd  is  cut,  the 
whey  begins  to  separate,  and  the  mass  of  cut  curd  is  then  kept  in 
gentle  motion  by  stirring,  taking  care  to  avoid  breaking  the 
cubes.  This  results  in  the  separation  of  a  clear  whey,  free  from 
fat  or  small  particles  of  curd.  The  curd  contracts  and  hardens 
during  this  process  and  soon  reaches  a  condition  in  which  the 
surfaces  do  not  readily  adhere.  During  this  process  of  separa- 
tion of  the  whey,  the  temperature  is  raised  to  about  90°  F.  and 
finally  toward  the  last  to  about  98°  F. 

Removing  the  whey.  The  precipitated  curd  is  left  in  contact 
with  the  whey  for  some  time,  during  which  time  there  is  some 
action  of  the  acid  of  the  whey  upon  the  protein  of  the  curd,  which 
is  allowed  to  continue  until  a  small  mass  of  the  curd,  which  has 
been  squeezed  in  the  hand  to  remove  the  whey  and  then  pressed 
against  a  bar  of  iron  heated  a  little  below  redness,  will  leave 
adhering  to  the  iron  fine,  silky  threads,  the  length  of  which  indi- 
cates roughly  the  extent  to  which  the  desired  combination  of 
acid  and  protein  has  taken  place.  Usually  the  curd  is  separated 
when  the  hot  iron  test  shows  strings  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
long ;  but  other  tests  are  also  used  to  aid  in  judging  when  the 
whey  should  be  removed.  The  whey  is  run  off  gradually  while 
the  stirring  of  the  curd  is  continued. 

Cheddaring  the  curd.  Most  of  the  whey  having  run  off,  the 
cubes  of  curd  are  left  piled  in  the  bottom  of  the  vat  until  they 
mat  or  pack  together,  which  process  is  technically  known  as 
"  cheddaring."  Sometimes  the  "  cheddaring  "  is  accomplished 
in  a  special  apparatus  called  the  "  curd  sink."     When  the  ched- 


92  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

daring  of  the  curd  is  complete,  it  is  cut  into  blocks,  6  to  12  inches 
in  each  dimension,  which  are  turned  in  the  vat  in  order  to  facili- 
tate the  further  removal  of  whey,  and  are  then  carefully  placed, 
one  over  the  other,  until  they  form  a  large  mass.  The  process 
of  solidifying  or  "  cheddaring  "  has  two  results :  first,  the 
more  complete  removal  of  the  whey,  and  second,  the  formation 
of  a  characteristic  texture  in  the  curd  which  becomes  less  rubber- 
like and  more  velvety  and  forms  strings  of  an  inch  or  more  in 
length  when  tested  with  the  hot  iron.  During  the  cheddaring 
a  considerable  increase  of  acidity  occurs,  the  last  of  the  whey 
which  drains  from  the  piled  curd  showing  usually  an  acidity  equal 
to  0.6  to  0.9  per  cent  of  lactic  acid. 

Milling  the  curd.  The  milling  process  consists  in  cutting  the 
lumps  of  curd  into  small  pieces  of  imiform  size  in  order  that  it 
may  be  salted  more  evenly  and  handled  more  readily  when  it  is 
placed  in  hoops  for  pressing.  This  is  done  by  means  of  curd- 
mills  designed  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  loss  of  fat  which 
would  result  from  crushing  or  squeezing  the  curd. 

Salting  and  pressing.  Salt  is  added  chiefly  for  flavoring, 
but  also  it  aids  in  removing  the  whey,  it  hardens  the  curd,  it 
checks  the  further  formation  of  lactic  acid,  and  it  helps  to  pre- 
vent the  development  of  undesirable  fermentation.  Excessive 
salting  is,  however,  injurious.  Usually  from  i  to  3  pounds  of 
salt  are  added  to  the  curd  obtained  from  1000  pounds  of  milk. 
After  filling  the  curd  into  the  mold  it  is  pressed  in  the  proper 
form  by  a  uniform  pressure  which  is  continued  for  24  to  48  hours. 
Usually  a  light  pressure  is  applied  at  first  and  gradually  increased 
during  about  an  hour,  when  the  cheese  is  removed,  trimmed; 
turned,  wrapped  in  cloth,  and  replaced  for  the  final  pressing. 

Ripening  or  curing  the  cheese.  When  taken  from  the  press 
cheese  is  said  to  be  unripe,  green,  or  uncured.  It  must  be  stored 
for  weeks  or  months  to  become  properly  ripened.  The  higher 
the  temperature  to  which  cheese  is  exposed  in  ripening,  the  more 
rapid  the  process  will  be,  but  this  is  attained  usually  at  the 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS       93 

expense  of  the  quality  of  the  cheese.  For  the  best  results,  the 
ripening  is  conducted  at  a  temperature  not  above  55°  F.  and 
requires  a  comparatively  long  time.  During  the  ripening  the 
cheese  undergoes  some  loss  of  weight  by  evaporation  of  moisture, 
but  the  chief  object  of  the  ripening  process  is  to  secure  certain 
changes  in  texture  and  flavor  which  depend  essentially  upon  a 
gradual  hydrolysis  of  the  cheese  protein,  the  changes  being 
very  similar  to  those  which  take  place  in  digestion. 

The  increase  of  soluble  proteins,  and  of  the  products  of  further 
cleavage,  which  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  the  insoluble  pro- 
tein of  the  original  curd,  is  shown  in  Table  5,  which  is  condensed 
from  data  given  by  Van  Slyke  and  Publow.' 

Table  5.     Showing  Development  of  Protein  Cleavage  Products  in 

Cheese 


Age  of 
Cheese 

Nitrogen,  Expressed  as  Percentage  of  the  Total  Nitrogen  of  the 
Cheese,  in  the  Form  of: 

Soluble  Pro- 
teins and  De- 
rivatives 

Proteoses 

Peptones 

Amino  Acids 

Ammonia 

Months 

3 
6 

9 
12 
18 

Per  cent 
21.44 
30.98 
36.15 
43-45 
44-75 
47.25 

Per  cent 

315 
4-56 
4.92 

4-59 
4.16 
3-88 

Per  cent 

3-84 
4-65 
4.22 

3-56 
3-95 

.2.57 

Per  cent 

9.88 

14.36 

19.96 

26.53 
28.38 
30.46 

Per  cent 
1.56 
2.45 
3.52 
4.74 
5.41 
6.62 

The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  cheese  protein  during  the 
ripening  process  are  doubtless  due  to  a  combination  of  factors. 
Van  Slyke  holds  that  (i)  the  lactic  acid,  (2)  the  rennet  enzyme, 
(3)  the  milk  enzyme  (galactase),  (4)  microorganisms,  chiefly 
bacteria,  all  play  important  parts  in  the  ripening  process.     The 

•  The  Science  and  Practice  of  Cheesemaking,  page  337. 


94  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

exact  part  played  by  each  of  these  factors  is  still  a  subject  of 
investigation. 

Other  Varieties  of  Cheese 

Since  about  three  fourths  of  all  the  cheese  used  in  the  United 
States  is  of  the  Cheddar  type,  only  that  type  can  be  considered 
at  all  fully  here.  The  following  statements  regarding  a  few  other 
varieties  of  cheese  are  abbreviated  from  the  descriptions  given 
by  Doane  and  Lawson.^ 

Brie.  This  is  a  soft  rennet  cheese  made  from  cows'  milk. 
The  cheese  varies  in  size  and  also  in  quality,  depending  on 
whether  whole  or  partly  skimmed  milk  is  used.  The  method  of 
manufacture  closely  resembles  that  of  Camembert. 

This  cheese  has  been  made  in  France  for  several  centuries. 
Mention  was  made  of  it  as  early  as  1407.  It  is  made  through- 
out France,  but  more  extensively  in  the  Department  of  Seine  et 
Marne,  in  which  it  doubtless  originated.  More  or  less  success- 
ful imitations  of  this  cheese  are  made  in  other  countries.  It  was 
estimated  that  7,000,000  pounds  of  Brie  cheese  were  sold  in 
Paris  during  1900.     The  export  trade  is  also  very  important. 

Camembert.  This  is  a  soft  rennet  cheese  made  from  cows' 
milk.  A  typical  cheese  is  about  4I  inches  in  diameter  and  i| 
inches  thick  and  is  usually  found  on  the  market  in  this  country 
wrapped  in  paper  and  inclosed  in  a  wooden  box  of  the  same  shape. 
The  cheese  usually  has  a  rind  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  which  is  composed  of  molds  and  dried  cheese.  The 
interior  is  yellowish  in  color,  and  waxy,  creamy,  or  almost  fluid 
in  consistency,  depending  largely  upon  the  degree  of  ripeness. 

Camembert  cheese  is  said  to  have  originated  in  1791  in  the 
locality  from  which  it  derives  its  name  in  the  Department  of 
Orne,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  France.  The  industry  ex- 
tended soon   into  Calvados,  and  these  two  departments  are 

1  Varieties  of  Cheese :  Descriptions  and  Analyses,  United  States  Departmeat 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industrj',  Bulletin  105. 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS  MILK  PRODUCTS       95 

still  the  principal  seat  of  the  industry.  Very  successful  cheeses 
of  this  type  have  been  made  at  the  Storrs  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  in  Connecticut. 

Cheshire.  This  cheese  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  popular 
of  the  English  varieties.  It  is  a  rennet  cheese  made  from  un- 
skimmed cows'  milk,  and  is  named  for  Chester  County,  Eng- 
land, where  it  is  largely  produced.  It  is  made  in  cylindrical 
shape  from  14  to  16  inches  in  diameter,  and  weighs  50  to  70 
pounds.  In  making  this  cheese  sufficient  annatto  is  used  to 
give  the  product  a  very  high  color. 

Cheshire-Stilton.  This  is  a  combination  of  the  Cheshire  and 
Stilton  varieties  of  cheese  in  which  the  general  characteristics 
of  size  and  shape  and  manufacture  of  the  Cheshire  are  retained, 
and  a  growth  of  the  mold  peculiar  to  Stilton  is  secured.  The 
mold  is  propagated  by  keeping  out  each  day  a  portion  of  curd 
and  mixing  it  with  some  older  curd  in  which  the  mold  is 
growing  well. 

Edam.  This  is  a  hard  rennet  cheese  produced  in  Holland ;  it 
is  also  known  as  Katzenkopf,  Tete  de  Maure,  and  ManboUen. 
The  best  of  the  product  is  made  of  unskimmed  cows'  milk,  but 
much  of  it  at  the  present  time  is  made  from  milk  which  has  had 
at  least  one  half  of  the  fat  removed.  The  cheeses  are  round 
and  are  colored  deep  red  on  the  surface  or  wrapped  in  tin  foil. 

When  the  cheese  is  one  month  old  it  is  washed  in  water  at 
70°  F.  for  twenty  minutes  and  then  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry,  after 
which  it  is  rubbed  with  linseed  oil.  Before  shipping  the  cheese 
is  colored,  usually  red,  but  for  some  markets  it  is  colored  yellow 
with  annatto.  This  coloring  is  done  with  a  watery  solution  of 
litmus  and  Berlin  red,  or  with  carmine.  A  considerable  quantity 
of  this  cheese  is  imported  into  the  United  States.  At  the  present 
time  some  Edam  cheeses  are  inclosed  in  air-tight  tins  for  export. 

EmmentaL  This  is  a  hard  rennet  cheese  made  from  un- 
skimmed cows'  milk,  and  has  a  mild,  somewhat  sweetish  flavor. 
It  is  characterized  by  holes  or  eyes  which  develop  to  about  the 


96  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

size  of  a  half  inch  in  typical  cheeses  and  are  situated  from  i  to  3 
inches  apart.  Cheese  of  the  same  kind  made  in  the  United 
States  is  known  as  Domestic  Swiss,  and  that  made  in  the  region 
of  Lake  Constance  is  called  Algau  Emmental. 

Emmental  cheese  is  a  very  old  variety.  In  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century  a  cheese  probably  of  this  type  was  manufac- 
tured in  the  Canton  of  Emmental.  In  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  industry  was  well  developed  and  genuine 
Emmental  cheese  was  being  exported.  In  1722  its  manufacture 
under  the  name  of  Gruyere  is  recorded  in  France,  two  cooperative 
societies  having  been  organized  for  this  purpose. 

Emmental  cheese  is  now  manufactured  in  every  civilized 
country.  In  the  United  States  there  are  many  factories,  lo- 
cated principally  in  Wisconsin,  New  York,  and  Ohio.  In 
Switzerland  the  greater  part  of  the  milk  produced  is  made  into 
this  product,  and  large  districts  in  France  and  northern  Italy 
are  devoted  to  its  manufacture.  The  best  of  the  product  made 
in  Switzerland  is  exported,  about  5,000,000  pounds  coming  to 
the  United  States  annually. 

Gorgonzola.  This  variety,  known  also  as  Stracchino  di  Gor- 
gonzola,  is  a  rennet  Italian  cheese  made  from  whole  cows'  milk. 
The  name  is  taken  from  the  village  of  Gorgonzola,  near  Milan ; 
but  very  little  of  this  cheese  is  now  made  in  that  immediate 
locality.  The  interior  of  the  cheese  is  mottled  or  veined  with  a 
penicillium  much  like  Roquefort,  and  for  this  reason  the  cheese 
has  been  grouped  with  the  Roquefort  and  Stilton  varieties.  As 
seen  upon  the  markets  in  this  country,  the  surface  of  the  cheese 
is  covered  with  a  thin  coat  resembling  clay,  said  to  be  prepared 
by  mixing  barite  or  gypsum,  lard-  or  tallow,  and  coloring  matter. 
The  cheeses  are  cylindrical  in  shape,  being  about  12  inches  in 
diameter  and  6  inches  in  height,  and  as  marketed  are  wrapped 
in  paper  and  packed  with  straw  in  wicker  baskets. 

The  manufacture  of  Gorgonzola  cheese  is  an  important 
industry  in  Lombardy,  where  formerly  it  was  carried  on  prin- 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS       97 

cipally  during  the  months  of  September  and  October,  but  with 
the  estabHshment  of  curing  cellars  in  the  Alps,  especially  near 
Lecco,  the  manufacture  is  no  longer  confined  to  this  season. 

At  an  early  stage  in  the  process  of  ripening  the  cheese  is  usually 
punched  with  an  instrument  about  6  inches  long  tapering  from 
a  sharp  point  to  a  diameter  of  about  one  eighth  inch  at  the 
base.  About  150  holes  are  made  in  each  cheese.  This  favors 
the  development  of  the  penicillium  throughout  the  interior  of 
the  cheese.  Well-made  cheese  may  be  kept  for  a  year  or  longer. 
In  the  region  where  made,  much  of  the  cheese  is  consumed  while 
in  a  fresh  condition. 

Gruyere.  This  name  is  applied  to  Emmental  cheese  manu- 
factured in  France,  the  name  originating  from  the  Swiss  village 
of  Gruyere.  The  cheese  was  first  mentioned  in  1722,  when  two 
societies  were  reported  to  have  been  organized  for  its  manu- 
facture. The  Gruyere  cheese  is  made  in  three  different  qualities 
—  whole  milk,  partly  skimmed,  and  skimmed.  It  is  usually 
made  from  partly  skimmed  milk,  and  this  is  supposed  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Emmental,  which  is  supposed  to  be  made  from 
whole  milk.  The  manufacture  of  Gruyere  cheese  is  an  exten- 
sive industry  in  France,  about  50,000,000  pounds  having  been 
manufactured  annually  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century. 

Limburg.  This  is  a  soft  rennet  cheese  made  from  cows'  milk 
which  may  contain  all  of  the  fat  or  be  partly  or  entirely  skimmed. 
The  best  Limburg  is  undoubtedly  made  from  whole  milk.  This 
cheese  has  a  very  strong  and  characteristic  odor  and  taste. 
The  cheese  is  about  6  by  6  by  3  inches  and  weighs-  about 
2  pounds. 

Limburg  cheese  originated  in  the  province  of  Luttich,  Belgium, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Herve,  and  was  marketed  in  Limburg, 
Belgium.  Its  manufacture  has  spread  to  Germany  and  Austria, 
where  it  is  very  popular,  and  to  the  United  States,  where  large 
quantities  are  made,  mostly  in  New  York  and  Wisconsin. 

According  to  Doane  and  Lawson  no  Limburg  is  imported  into 


98  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

this  country  at  the  present  time,  this  type  of  cheese  being  made 
so  cheaply  and  of  such  good  quality  in  this  country  that  the 
foreign  make  has  been  crowded  out  of  the  market. 

Neufchatel.  This  is  a  soft  rennet  cheese  made  extensively  in 
the  Department  of  Seine-Inferieure,  France,  from  cows'  milk 
either  whole  or  skimmed. 

The  milk,  preferably  fresh,  is  set  at  85°  F.  with  only  so  much 
rennet  as  is  necessary  to  secure  the  desired  coagulation  in  twenty- 
four  hours  in  summer  and  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours 
in  winter.  The  curd  is  then  inclosed  in  cheesecloth  and  drained 
for  twelve  hours,  after  which  it  is  subjected  to  pressure  for  an- 
other period  of  twelve  hours.  It  is  then  thoroughly  kneaded 
by  hand,  or  in  the  larger  factories  by  means  of  a  curd  mill, 
and  pressed  into  tin  cylinders  about  2  inches  in  diameter  and 
3  inches  high.  The  cheeses  are  removed  soon  from  the  molds, 
salted,  and  replaced.  After  draining  for  twenty-four  hours 
they  are  transferred  to  the  so-called  "  drying  room,"  where  they 
become  covered  with  white  and  later  with  blue  molds.  They 
are  then  taken  to  the  curing  cellar,  where  the  ripening  process  is 
continued  for  three  to  four  weeks.  The  appearance  of  red  spots 
on  the  surface  is  taken  as  an  indication  that  the  ripening  has 
progressed  far  enough.  The  cheeses  are  then  wrapped  in  tin 
foil  and  marketed. 

Parmesan..  This  name  is  in  common  use  outside  of  Italy  for 
the  cheese  made  and  known  in  that  country  for  centuries  as 
Grana,  the  term  "  grana  "  or  "  granona  "  referring  to  the 
granular  appearance  of  the  cheese  when  broken,  as  is  necessary 
on  account  of  the  hardness  of  the  cheese,  which  makes  cutting 
practically  impossible.  There  are  two  quite  distinct  varieties 
of  Parmesan  cheese,  one  made  in  Lombardy  and  the  other  in 
Emilia,  the  centers  of  production  being  separated  by  the  River 
Po.  Parma,  situated  in  Emilia,  has  long  been  an  important 
commercial  center  for  both  varieties,  and  to  this  fact  the  name 
Parmesan  is  due.    The  use  of  the  term  "  Parmesan,"  however. 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS  MILK  PRODUCTS       99 

is  sometimes  restricted  to  the  cheese  made  in  Lombardy,  the 
term  "  Reggian  "  being  used  to  designate  that  made  in  Emilia. 

The  Lombardy  cheese  made  from  April  to  September  is  known 
locally  as  Sorte  Maggenga  and  that  from  October  to  March  as 
Sorte  Vermenga.     The  Reggian  cheese  is  made  only  in  summer. 

Parmesan  cheese  when  well  made  may  be  broken  and  grated 
easily  and  may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  number  of  years.  It  is 
grated  and  used  largely  for  soups  and  with  macaroni.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  this  cheese  is  imported  into  this  country 
and  sells  for  a  high  price. 

Pineapple.  This  cheese,  which  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin 
in  Litchfield  County,  Conn.,  about  1845,  is  so  named  from  the 
fruit  which  the  cheese  is  made  to  resemble  in  shape.  It  is  a  hard 
rennet  cheese  made  from  whole  cows'  milk.  The  cheese  is  quite 
hard  and  is  rather  highly  colored.  The  early  process  of  manu- 
facture is  the  same  as  with  Cheddar,  except  that  it  is  made 
much  harder.  The  curd  is  pressed  in  the  desired  shape  in  various 
sizes  up  to  6  pounds  in  weight.  After  pressing,  the  cheese  is 
dipped  for  a  few  minutes  in  water  at  120°  F.  and  is  then  put  in 
a  net  for  twenty-four  hours,  which  gives  it  the  diamond-shaped 
corrugations  on  the  surface.  It  requires  several  months  to  ripen 
and  during  this  time  the  surface  is  rubbed  with  oil,  which  makes 
it  very  smooth  and  hard. 

Roquefort.  This  is  a  hard  rennet  cheese  made  from  the  milk 
of  sheep.  There  are,  however,  numerous  imitations  or  varieties 
closely  resembling  Roquefort,  such  as  Gex  and  Septmoncel, 
made  from  cows'  milk.  One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics 
of  this  cheese  is  the  mottled  or  marbled  appearance  of  the  inte- 
rior, due  to  the  development  of  a  penicillium,  which  is  the  prin- 
cipal ripening  agent.  The  manufacture  of  Roquefort  cheese 
has  been  carried  on  in  the  southeastern  part  of  France  for  at 
least  two  centuries.  The  industry  is  particularly  important 
in  the  Department  of  Avekron,  in  which  is  situated  the  village 
of  Roquefort,  from  which  the  cheese  derives  its  name.     It  is 


lOO  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

also  made  in  Corsica.  Imitations  of  Roquefort  cheese  are 
made  in  various  countries. 

Formerly  the  manufacture  of  the  cheese  was  carried  on  by  the 
shepherds  themselves,  but  in  recent  years  centralized  factories 
have  been  established  and  much  of  the  milk  is  collected  and 
there  made  into  cheese.  The  cheese  is  then  taken  to  the  caves. 
These  are  for  the  most  part  natural  caverns  which  exist  in  large 
numbers  in  the  region  of  Roquefort  and  the  air  circulates  freely 
through  them.  Recently,  artificial  caves  have  been  constructed 
and  used.  When  the  cheeses  reach  the  caves  they  are  salted, 
which  serves  to  check  the  growth  of  the  mold  on  the  surface. 
One  or  two  days  later  they  are  rubbed  vigorously  with  cloth  and 
are  afterwards  subjected  to  thorough  scraping  with  knives,  a 
process  formerly  done  by  hand,  but  now  much  more  satisfac- 
torily and  economically  by  machinery.  The  salting,  scraping, 
or  brushing  seems  to  check  the  development  of  mold  on  the 
surface.  In  order  to  favor  the  growth  of  mold  in  the  interior, 
the  cheese  is  pierced  by  machinery  with  60  to  100  small  steel 
needles,  which  process  permits  the  free  access  of  air.  The  cheese 
may  be  sold  after  thirty  to  forty  days  or  may  remain  in  the  caves 
as  long  as  five  months,  depending  upon  the  degree  of  ripening 
desired.  The  cheese '  loses  during  ripening  by  scraping  and 
evaporation  as  much  as  25  per  cent  of  the  original  weight.  The 
weight  when  ripened  is  about  4^  to  5  pounds. 

Stilton.  This  is  a  hard  rennet  cheese,  the  best  of  which  is 
made  from  cows'  milk  to  which  a  portion  of  cream  has  been 
added.  It  was  first  made  near  the  village  of  Stilton,  Hunting- 
donshire, England,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
It  is  now  made  principally  in  Leicestershire  and  West  Rutland- 
shire, though  its  manufacture  has  extended  to  other  parts  of 
England.  Its  manufacture  has  been  tried,  though  without 
success,  in  the  United  States.  The  cheese  is  about  7  inches  in 
diameter  and  9  inches  high,  and  weighs  1 2  to  1 5  pounds.  It  has 
a  very  characteristic  wrinkled  or  ridged  skin  or  rind,  which  is 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     lOl 

likely  caused  by  the  drying  of  molds  and  bacteria  on  the  surface. 
When  cut  it  shows  blue  or  green  portions  of  mold  which  give 
its  characteristic  piquant  flavor.  The  price  in  this  country  is 
about  45  cents  a  pound  wholesale.  The  cheese  belongs  to  the 
same  group  as  the  Roquefort  of  France  and  the  Gorgonzola  of 
Italy. 

Relation  of  Microorganisms  to  Cheesemaking 

That  there  should  be  hundreds  of  varieties  of  cheese  all  made 
from  milk,  rennet,  and  salt,  but  each  having  a  characteristic 
flavor,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  differences  in  the  microorganisms 
which  take  part  in  the  ripening  of  the  different  varieties. 

As  a  rule  in  the  hard  cheeses  the  ripening  agents  are  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  cheese  mass  at  the  beginning  of  the  ripen- 
ing process  and  therefore  act  in  a  more  or  less  uniform  way 
throughout  the  cheese  whatever  its  size ;  while  in  the  soft  cheeses 
the  ripening  process  is  largely  due  to  organisms  growing  on  the 
surface  and  producing  products  which  only  gradually  penetrate 
the  cheese  mass,  so  that  it  is  practically  necessary  that  these 
cheeses  be  made  in  small  sizes. 

It  will  be  recalled  from  the  above  description  of  Cheddar 
cheesemaking  that  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  active  in  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  milk  before  curdling,  in  the  whey  and  curd  during 
the  cheesemaking  process,  and  in  the  ripening  cheese.  Accord- 
ing to  Hastings  ^  the  maximum  number  of  bacteria  is  found 
when  the  cheese  is  one  to  five  days  old  and  may  be  as  high  as 
1,500,000,000  per  gram  of  moist  cheese.  While  no  one  species 
is  considered  entirely  responsible  for  this  lactic  acid  fermenta- 
tion, it  is  essential  that  the  desirable  types  producing  a  clean 
lactic  acid  fermentation  without  gas  production  shall  predomi- 
nate over  the  undesirable  gas-producing  types. 

During  the  ripening  process  the  number  of  active  lactic  acid 
bacteria  becomes  considerably  reduced  and  it  is  believed  that 

•  Marshall's  Microbiology,  page  354. 


I02  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  substances  liberated  in  disintegration  of  these  bacteria 
may  play  a  part  in  the  development  of  the  characteristic 
flavor. 

Emmental  cheese  ("  Swiss  "  or  "  Schweitzer  "  cheese)  differs 
from  Cheddar  cheese  in  that  the  lactic  acid  fermentation  is 
much  less  pronounced  during  the  process  of  making  the  cheese, 
while  the  fermentation  during  the  ripening  process  is  of  a  some- 
what different  type  and  gives  rise  to  a  different  flavor.  Lactic 
acid  bacteria  produce  lactic  acid  or  lactates  which  in  turn  are 
attacked  by  organisms  of  a  different  type  with  the  production 
of  carbon  dioxide  to  which  the  characteristic  holes  or  "  eyes  " 
are  due. 

Roquefort  cheese  owes  its  mottled  appearance  and  much  at 
least  of  its  characteristic  flavor  to  the  growth  of  a  mold,  Penicil- 
lium  roqueforti  (Thom),  which  is  introduced  by  sprinkling  the 
curd  with  crumbs  of  bread  on  which  this  mold  has  grown.  The 
growth  of  the  mold  in  the  cheese  is  favored  by  punching  holes 
to  admit  the  air. 

Gorgonzola  and  Stilton  cheeses  resemble  Roquefort  and  are 
supposed  to  contain  either  the  same  mold  or  a  related  type, 
Penicillium  glaucum. 

Camembert  cheese  owes  its  characteristic  flavor  and  consist- 
ency chiefly  to  the  growth  of  two  molds,  Oidium  (Oospora) 
lactis,  which  covers  the  cheese  during  the  first  few  days  of  ripen- 
ing, and  Penicillium  camemberti,  which  appears  later.  These 
molds  utilize  organic  acids  as  food,  thus  reducing  the  acidity  of 
the  cheese,  while  they  produce  proteolytic  (protein-digesting) 
enzymes  which  gradually  penetrate  and  soften  the  cheese. 
The  reduction  of  acidity,  however,  also  renders  the  cheese  more 
susceptible  to  attack  by  putrefactive  bacteria  which,  if  allowed 
to  multiply  in  the  cheese,  will  soon  change  its  flavor.  The  man- 
ufacture of  Camembert  cheese  is  particularly  difficult  because 
the  development  of  the  desired  consistency  and  flavor  depends 
upon  such  a  close  control  of  conditions  as  wfll  maintain  a  deli- 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK  PRODUCTS     103 

cate  balance  in  the  development  of  the  different  organisms 
involved. 

Brie  also  owes  its  flavor  and  consistency  to  molds,  while  the 
red  coloration  of  the  surface  is  attributed  to  a  bacillus. 

Limburg  cheese  is  characteristic  of  the  type  in  which  devel- 
opment of  putrefactive  bacteria  is  allowed  to  continue  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  with  a  corresponding  development  of  putrefac- 
tive odor. 

These  statements  regarding  the  role  of  microorganisms  in 
cheese  ripening  are  based  largely  upon  Marshall's  Microbiology, 
pages  354-362,  and  Buchanan's  Household  Bacteriology,  pages 
297-301,  which  works,  as  well  as  the  more  special  papers 
listed  in  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  may  be  con- 
sulted for  more  detailed  discussions. 

Commercial  Quality 

The  commercial  quality  of  cheese  depends  upon  the  flavor, 
texture,  body,  color,  and  "  appearance."  By  flavor  is  meant 
the  quality  which  is  perceptible  to  the  taste  and  smell.  "  Tex- 
ture "  refers  chiefly  to  compactness  or  appearance  of  solidity. 
"  Body  "  means  the  consistency  or  firmness  as  revealed  by 
pressing  a  piece  of  the  cheese  between  finger  and  thumb.  Color 
should  be  uniform  whether  the  cheese  is  artificially  colored  or 
not.  "  Appearance  "  as  the  term  is  here  used  applies  to  the 
exterior  finish  of  the  cheese  and  its  package. 

The  technical  terms  used  in  describing  these  qualities,  to- 
gether with  other  practices  relating  to  the  commercial  grading 
and  scoring  of  cheese,  are  described  and  explained  in  Van  Slyke 
and  Publow's  Science  and  Practice  of  Cheese-making,  Chapter 
VIII. 

The  following  are  typical  scales  of  points  used  in  judging  and 
scoring  cheese : 


I04 


FOOD    PRODUCTS 


Flavor 
Texture   . 
Body  .     . 
Color  .     . 
Appearance 


Export  Cheese 


Home-trade  Cheese 


45 

50 

IS 
IS 

1       - 

IS 

15 

lO 

10 

Composition,  Adulteration,  Standards  of  Purity 

Qualitative  composition.  As  is  readily  seen  from  its  method 
of  manufacture,  cheese  contains  the  casein  and  fat  of  the  milk 
and  so  much  of  whey  as  does  not  drain  out  of  the  curd.  The 
retention  of  portions  of  whey  will  of  course  keep  in  the  cheese 
appreciable  but  small  amounts  of  lactalbumin,  of  the  soluble 
salts  of  the  milk,  and  of  milk  sugar  or  the  lactic  acid  resulting 
from  its  fermentation. 

Quantitative  composition.  The  composition  of  the  milk  and 
the  details  of  manipulation  in  the  manufacture  of  the  cheese 
naturally  influence  the  composition  of  the  product.  In  a  series 
of  analyses  covering  156  samples  of  green  cheese  of  the  Cheddar 
type  made  in  various  factories  in  New  York  State  in  1892-1893, 
Van  Slyke  found:  moisture,  32.7  to  43.9  per  cent;  fat,  30.0  to 
36.8  per  cent;  protein,  20.8  to  26.1  per  cent.  Samples  from 
more  widely  scattered  sources  would  doubtless  show  greater 
variation.  The  approximate  average  composition  of  the  prin- 
cipal types  of  cheese  is  shown  in  Table  6. 

Except  that  the  soft  cheeses  like  Brie,  Camembert,  and  Neuf- 
chatel  are  wetter  and  the  hard  pineapple  cheese  is  dryer,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  different  varieties  do  not  diflfer  greatly 
from  an  average  composition  of  about  one  third  water,  one  third 
fat,  and  one  fourth  protein.  These  statements,  of  course,  relate 
to  whole  milk  cheese. 

The  fat  of  cheese,  while  not  so  perfectly  emulsified  as  it  origi- 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     105 


nally  existed  in  the  milk,  is  still  in  a  finely  divided  state  and 
should  be  quite  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  cheese- 
mass.  Chemically  it  has  the  composition  of  milk  fat  or  butter 
fat  and  shows  but  little  change  as  the  result  of  the  ripening 
process. 

Table  6.     Approximate  Average    CoMPOsrrioN   or   Different  Types 

OF  Cheese  ^ 


Variety 

Water 

Fat 

Protein 
(NX6.2S) 

Salt,  Milk  Sugar,  Lactic 
Acid,  and  Ash 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Brie      .     .     . 

50- 

28. 

18. 

4- 

Camembert    . 

45- 

30. 

20. 

5- 

Cheddar    .     . 

35- 

34- 

25- 

6. 

Edam  .     .     . 

33- 

29. 

29. 

9- 

Emmental 

34- 

31- 

30- 

S- 

Limburg    . 

35- 

30- 

29. 

6. 

Neufchatel     . 

SO- 

27. 

18. 

5- 

Parmesan . 

35- 

21. 

36. 

8. 

Pineapple 

24. 

38. 

3°- 

8. 

Roquefort 

35- 

32. 

25- 

8. 

Stilton       .     . 

33,- 

37- 

25- 

5-    . 

The  protein  of  cheese  consists  chiefly  of  the  more  or  less 
digested  casein  (though  to  a  small  extent  of  the  albumin  also) 
of  the  milk.  It  has  already  been  shown  in  the  paragraph  on 
the  ripening  process  that  much  of  the  casein  is  digested,  not  only 
into  a  soluble  protein,  but  to  proteoses,  peptones,  and  even  amino 
acids  and  ammonia.  Of  the  successive  analyses  shown  in 
Table  5,  the  one  made  when  the  cheese  was  six  months  old  most 
nearly  represents  the  stage  of  digestion  at  which  it  is  ordinarily 
sold  and  eaten. 

The  ash  of  cheese  varies  greatly  in  composition  according  as 
much  or  little  salt  has  been  added  during  manufacture.     It  is 

'  Based  on  analyses  given  in  Bulletin  105,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Io6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

always  high  in  calcium,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur,  and  fairly  high 
in  iron,  these  elements  of  the  milk  being  largely  constituents  of 
the  curd;  while  the  potassium,  sodium,  and  chlorine  of  the 
milk  are  largely  removed  in  the  whey,  but  the  sodium  and  chlo- 
rine are  later  more  than  restored  in  the  added  salt. 

Adulteration  and  misbranding.  The  chief  forms  of  adulter- 
ation and  misbranding  of  cheese  are  deficiency  (or  substitution) 
of  fat,  excess  of  moisture,  and  misuse  of  geographical  names. 
Cheese  made  from  milk  which  has  been  wholly  or  partially 
skimmed  is  known  as  "  skimmed  milk  cheese  "  or  "  skim  cheese." 
This  is  a  wholesome  and  nutritious  food,  but  less  palatable  and 
of  much  less  fuel  value  than  whole  milk  cheese.  Unless  its  sale 
is  carefully  regulated  it  is  apt  to  be  substituted  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  for  whole  milk  cheese,  at  least  in  retail  trade,  which 
is  considered  serious  both  as  an  imposition  upon  the  consumer 
and  as  an  inury  to  the  cheese  trade.  Van  Slyke  and  Publow 
point  out  that  skim-milk  cheese  is  not  only  deficient  in  fat  but 
must  also  contain  an  excess  of  water  in  order  to  be  salable,  since 
a  skim-milk  cheese  with  only  the  same  amount  of  water  as  a 
whole-milk  cheese  would  be  too  hard  and  tough  to  be  acceptable, 
and  that  because  of  this  high  moisture  content  it  does  not  possess 
the  keeping  qualities  of  whole-milk  cheese.  They  suggest  that 
the  sale  of  skim-milk  cheese  should  be  prohibited  in  the  interest 
of  the  cheese  industry.  In  many  localities  the  restrictions  placed 
upon  skimmed  milk  cheese  are  in  fact  so  stringent  that  it  is 
practically  driven  out  of  the  market. 

Cheese  made  from  skimmed  milk  and  added  fat  is  called  "  filled 
cheese."  The  trade  in  this  cheese  is  also  subjected  to  restric- 
tions which  are  very  nearly  prohibitive.  The  United  States 
cheese  law  requires  that  filled  cheese  shall  be  packed  only  in 
wooden  containers  which  must  be  very  conspicuously  branded 
with  the  words  "  filled  cheese  "  in  several  places,  and  retailers 
must  sell  only  from  these  original  packages  and  must  deliver 
each  portion  of  such  cheese  sold  in  a  marked  and  branded  pack- 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     107 

age.     (See    Wing's    Milk    and    Its    Products,    pages    382-387, 
where  the  full  text  of  the  law  is  given.) 

Sometimes  the  cheese  curd  is  soaked  in  cold  water  before  the 
final  draining,  salting,  and  pressing.  This  practice  is  declared 
fraudulent  by  the  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection  (Food 
Inspection  Decision  97)  on  the  ground  that  it  introduces  an  un- 
due amount  of  water  into  the  cheese  and  also  gives  it  a  soft 
texture  and  an  appearance  of  superior  quality  which  deceives 
the  purchaser  as  to  its  real  nature.  The  Board  further  states 
that  such  cheese  is  of  inferior  quality  in  that  it  develops  less  of 
the  desirable  cheese  flavor  and  that  it  deteriorates  during  the 
curing  process,  and  therefore  rules  that  such  cheese  may  not 
enter  interstate  commerce  unless  under  some  such  name  as 
"  soaked  curd  cheese." 

Standards  of  puri.ty.  According  to  the  definitions  and  stand- 
ards recommended  by  the  Association  of  Ofiicial  Agricultural 
Chemists : 

Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product  made  from  milk 
or  cream  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic 
acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and 
seasoning,  and  contains,  in  the  water-free  substance,  not  less 
than  50  per  cent  of  milk  fat.  By  act  of  Congress,  approved 
June  6,  1896,  cheese  may  also  contain  added  coloring  matter. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  standard  sets  no  specific  limit  to  the 
water  content,  but  requires  that  the  fat  in  the  cheese  shall  be 
milk  fat  and  shall  constitute  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
total  solids  of  the  cheese.  (Cheese  with  a  lower  fat  content 
may  be  sold  as  skimmed  milk  cheese.) 

This  is  based  on  the  proportions  of  fat  and  casein  in  whole 
milk  and  on  analyses  of  cheese  made  by  the  New  York  State 
Experiment  Station  in  cooperation  with  cheesemakers  of  the 
state  and  in  Wisconsin  in  connection  with  a  cheese-scoring 
contest. 

In  the  New  York  analyses  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  water- 


lo8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

free  substance  varied  from  50.39  to  56.83 ;  in  the  Wisconsin 
analyses  from  51.35  to  56.4. 

Evidently  therefore  the  requirement  that  50  per  cent  of  the 
solids  shall  be  fat  sets  a  high  standard  and  assumes  not  only  the 
use  of  normal  milk  but  also  skillful  making  of  cheese  to  avoid 
loss  of  fat. 

Minnesota  has  a  standard  calling  for  45  per  cent  fat  in  the 
solids  of  cheese.  Colorado  requires  only  35  per  cent.  Missouri 
requires  that  cheese  be  made  of  milk  having  at  least  3  per  cent 
fat.  In  Ohio  any  cheese  having  less  than  20  per  cent  fat  (in 
the  moist  substance)  must  be  sold  as  skimmed  milk  cheese. 

Van  Slyke  estimates  that  cheese  made  from  normal  whole 
milk  rarely  contains  less  than  32  per  cent  fat  in  the  moist  sub- 
stance, even  when  green. 

Nutritive  Value  and  Place  in  the  Diet 

A  pound  of  cheese  represents  the  casein  and  fat  of  a  gallon  of 
average  milk.  The  high  nutritive  value  of  casein  has  been  ex- 
plained in  the  preceding  chapter.  Cheese  is  thus  a  concentrated 
and  economical  food,  especially  when  compared  with  other  foods 
of  animal  origin. 

Generally  speaking  cheese  sells  at  no  higher  price  per  pound 
than  the  ordinary  cuts  of  meat,  while  it  is  considerably  richer  in 
both  proteins  and  fat. 

While  fluctuations  in  price  and  in  the  proportions  of  fat  and 
bone  in  the  meats  make  exact  comparisons  impracticable  except 
for  individual  cases,  yet  it  is  a  fair  general  estimate  that  a  given 
amount  of  money  spent  for  American  cheese  at  ordinary  prices 
will  buy  about  twice  as  much  food  value  as  it  would  if  spent  for 
meat.  In  most  localities  cheese  gives  a  greater  return  in  food 
value  for  the  money  expended  than  other  staple  foods  of  animal 
origin,  but  in  some  places  milk  may  be  obtained  at  such  prices 
as  to  make  it  a  cheaper  food  than  cheese. 

Cheese  is  very  rich,  not  only  in  protein  and  fat,  but  also  in 


CHEESE   AND    MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     109 

calcium  and  phosphorus,  since  these  elements  in  milk  are  largely 
in  combination  in  or  with  the  casein  and  so  are  concentrated 
with  the  casein  in  the  process  of  cheesemaking.  The  iron- 
protein  compounds  of  the  milk  are  also  retained  in  the  cheese. 

Digestibility  of  cheese.  The  discomfort  which  sometimes 
follows  the  eating  of  cheese  may  be  due  in  part  to  irritation  of 
the  stomach  by  the  volatile  acids  and  some  of  the  protein  cleav- 
age products  developed  during  the  ripening,  but  is  doubtless 
very  largely  attributable  to  the  unsuitable  way  in  which  cheese 
is  often  eaten  —  as  at  hours  other  than  meal  times  or  at  the  end 
of  a  meal  already  sufficient.  When  given  a  rational  place  in  the 
meal,  and  thoroughly  chewed,  cheese  is  usually  well  digested. 
In  a  large  number  of  digestion  experiments  carried  out  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  it  was  found  that  on 
an  average  about  95  per  cent  of  the  protein  and  over  95  per  cent 
of  the  fat  of  the  cheese  were  digested  and  absorbed.'  Hence 
so  far  as  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  are  concerned  the  various 
kinds  of  cheese  tested  were  found  to  compare  favorably  with 
the  average  food  of  an  ordinary  mixed  diet.  Even  when  fed 
in  relatively  large  quantity  the  cheese  did  not,  in  these  experi- 
ments, cause  constipation  "or  other  physiological  disturbances." 

The  general  belief  that  cheese  is  difficult  of  digestion  is  attrib- 
uted by  Langworthy  to  its  being  digested  to  a  less  extent  in 
the  stomach  than  many  other  foods,  the  digestion  of  the  cheese 
taking  place  chiefly  in  the  intestine.  In  order  to  determine 
whether  the  digestion  of  cheese  requires  a  greater  expenditure 
of  energy  than  the  digestion  of  meat,  Langworthy  measured 
accurately  by  means  of  the  respiration  calorimeter  -  the  energy 
metabolism  of  the  same  man  after  eating  a  meal  consisting  chiefly 
of  beef  and  again  under  circumstances  otherwise  the  same  after 
eating  a  meal  containing  instead  of  the  beef  a  corresponding 
amount  of  cheese.     The  results  differed  by  only  2  Calories  per 

•  Yearbook  of  the  United  Stales  Department  of  Agriculture,  1910,  page  366. 

*  Described  in  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition,  Chapter  V. 


no  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

hour,  which  is  about  the  margin  which  must  be  allowed  for  exper- 
imental error  in  such  measurements.  Langworthy  therefore 
concludes  that  "  it  seems  fair  to  believe  that  there  was  practi- 
cally no  difference  between  the  cheese  and  the  meat  with  respect 
to  ease  of  digestion,  at  least  in  such  quantities  as  are  commonly 
eaten." 

Place  of  cheese  in  the  diet.  Langworthy  records  a  case  of 
a  young  man  who  "  for  the  sake  of  such  considerations  as  ease 
of  preparation  and  relative  economy  "  lived  for  over  two  years 
on  a  diet  of  cheese,  bread,  and  fruit.  The  man  enjoyed  good 
health  and  did  not  tire  of  his  diet.  A  quantitative  record  cover- 
ing a  part  of  the  time  indicated  that  the  man  was  accustomed 
to  consume  slightly  over  one  half  pound  of  cheese,  one  pound 
of  whole  wheat  bread,  and  two  pounds  of  fresh  fruit  per 
day. 

The  amounts  of  cheese  eaten  by  the  various  men  who  took 
part  in  the  experiments  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  were  usually  from  one  third  to  one  half  pound  per 
day.  These  quantities  were  taken  with  relish  and  were  well 
digested  even  though  the  men  as  a  rule  had  previously  not  been 
accustomed  to  eat  any  considerable  quantity  of  cheese. 

The  bulletin  by  Langworthy  and  Hunt  already  referred  to 
contains  many  specific  suggestions  for  the  use  of  cheese  in  a 
variety  of  ways  and  includes  the  following  conclusions: 

Experiments  have  shown  that  when  eaten  either  raw  or  carefully  cooked, 
cheese  is  as  thoroughly  digested  as  other  staple  foods  and  is  not  likely  to 
produce  physiological  disturbance. 

The  fact  that  cheese,  like  meat,  contains  neither  starch  nor  cellulose 
suggests  that,  like  meat,  it  should  be  combined  with  bread,  potatoes,  and 
other  starchy  foods,  with  vegetables  and  with  sweets.  The  concentrated 
character  of  cheese  and  many  cheese  dishes  suggests  the  use  of  succulent 
fruits  and  vegetables  with  them.  The  high  percentage  of  fat  in  cheese 
suggests  the  use  of  correspondingly  small  amounts  of  fat  in  the  accompany- 
ing dishes,  while  the  soft  texture  of  cheese  dishes  as  compared  with  meat 
makes  it  reasonable  to  serve  the  harder  and  crustier  breads  with  them. 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     III 

Though  cheese  is  so  generally  used  in  some  way  in  most  families,  yet 
the  making  of  menus  with  cheese  as  a  central  dish  is  less  well  understood 
than  more  usual  food  combinations,  since  there  is  less  experience  to  serve 
as  a  guide.  More  thought  is  therefore  usually  required  to  arrange  such 
cheese  meals  in  order  that  they  may  be  palatable  and  at  the  same  time 
reasonable  in  nutritive  value. 

In  order  that  the  diet  may  remain  well  balanced,  cheese,  if  used  in  quantity, 
should  replace  foods  of  similar  composition  rather  than  supplement  them. 

This  means  that  the  housekeeper,  in  suitable  ways,  can  use  cheese,  meat, 
fish,  eggs,  and  other  foods  of  similar  composition  as  substitutes  for  one  an- 
other, being  governed  by  their  relative  market  value  at  different  times  and 
seasons,  by  the  tastes  of  her  family,  and  similar  considerations.  If  she  uses 
the  different  foodstuffs  with  reference  to  their  nutritive  value  and  is  skillful 
in  preparing  foods  in  appetizing  ways  and  in  serving  them  in  attractive 
combinations,  the  daily  fare  may  be  both  adequate  and  pleasing,  whether 
she  selects  cheese  or  meat  or  fish  or  eggs  or  other  foods  to  supply  nitrogenous 
material  and  fat. 

As  already  suggested,  cheese  should  be  eaten  with  intelligence 
to  avoid  danger  of  irritation  of  the  stomach,  and  a  warning  may 
also  be  added  against  eating  large  quantities  at  a  time  of  cheese 
which  has  been  so  highly  ripened  as  to  contain  a  considerable 
percentage  of  ammonia.  With  these  precautions  cheese  may 
well  be  used  as  a  regular  staple  article  of  food,  interchangeably 
with  such  foods  as  meats  and  fish.  As  the  food  value  and  diges- 
tibility of  cheese  become  better  known  it  should  come  to  occupy 
a  much  more  prominent  place  m  the  typical  dietary  than  it  does 
at  present. 

Fermented  Milks 

We  have  seen  that  the  making  of  cheese  is  a  very  old  method 
of  preserving  milk  for  future  use  as  food.  Another  old  method, 
yielding  a  product  less  permanent  than  cheese,  but  more  perma- 
nent than  fresh  milk,  is  to  allow  the  milk  to  undergo  fermentation 
of  such  a  character  that  the  fermentation  products  are  not 
unwholesome  or  unpleasant  for  human  consumption,  yet  serve 
as  preservatives  to  prevent  undesirable  types  of  decomposition. 


112  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

The  fermentation  product  chiefly  depended  upon  in  such  cases 
is  lactic  acid,  although  in  certain  types  alcoholic  fermentation 
may  also  be  prominent.  Fermented  milks  have  long  been  a 
prominent  article  of  diet  in  Southern  Russia,  Turkey,  Bulgaria, 
and  neighbpring  countries,  and  in  recent  years  various  products 
of  this  type  such  as  kumiss,  kefir,  yoghurt,  and  fermented  milks 
sold  under  proprietary  names  have  come  into  increasing  use  in 
Western  Europe  and  in  America. 

Buttermilk  is  a  food  of  the  same  type,  and  until  recently  the 
demand  for  fermented  milk  in  this  country  was  readily  met  by 
the  sale  of  a  part  of  this  by-product  of  buttermaking.  As  the 
manufacture  of  butter  and  the  handling  of  market  milk  and 
cream  grew  to  be  separate  industries,  dealers  in  milk  and  cream 
sometimes  met  the  demand  for  buttermilk  by  fermenting  the 
skim  milk  which  remains  as  a  by-product  of  the  cream  trade. 
Such  fermented  skim  milk  is,  of  course,  not  literally  buttermilk^ 
although  it  may  "be  indistinguishable  in  composition  and  prop- 
erties and  equal  in  food  value. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  products  made  by  fermenting  whole 
milk  are  of  considerably  greater  food  value  because  of  their 
higher  fat  content. 

It  is,  however,  not  simply  because  of  the  amounts  of  nutri- 
ents which  they  contain  that  these  fermented  milks  have  at- 
tracted special  attention  in  recent  years,  but  because  of  belief 
that  the  finely  coagulated  casein  of  these  preparations  is  more 
easily  digested  than  the  curds  which  are  formed  in  the  stomach 
after  drinking  ordinary  milk,  and  especially  because  of  the 
possible  therapeutic  or  prophylactic  value  of  the  lactic  acid  or 
lactic  acid  bacteria  which  they  contain. 

In  some  cases  it  is  possible  that  the  fermentation  products 
(lactic  acid,  alcohol,  carbonic  acid)  may  have  a  slight  stimu- 
lating or  tonic  action  in  the  digestive  tract;  otherwise  any 
increased  digestibility  of  the  fermented  milk  is  due  not  so  much 
to  changes  in  the  chemical  nature  of  the  milk  constituents  as  to 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     II3 

the  fact  that  the  casein  is  furnished  in  a  precipitated  and  finely 
divided  condition.  The  fermentation  does  not  involve  any- 
material  digestive  cleavage  of  the  casein  such  as  occurs  in  the 
ripening  of  cheese.  The  fat  is  almost  unchanged  and  only  a 
part  of  the  milk  sugar  is  converted  into  organic  acids,  alcohol, 
and  carbonic  acid.  In  certain  disorders  of  the  stomach  in  which 
there  is  much  difficulty  in  retaining  food,  it  has  frequently  been 
found  possible  to  use  one  or  another  of  the  fermented  milks 
with  good  results.  As  the  result  of  the  studies  of  Metchnikoff 
and  his  associates  at  the  Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris,  there  has 
recently  been  much  interest  in  fermented  milks  as  a  possible 
means  of  preventing  or  controlling  excessive  intestinal  putre- 
faction. It  is  for  this  purpose  that  cultures  supposed  to  give 
a  purer  lactic  acid  fermentation  than  that  of  buttermilk  have 
been  introduced.  In  buttermilk  or  in  ordinary  milk  which  has 
been  allowed  to  sour  freely,  there  is  usually  developed  only 
about  I  per  cent  of  lactic  acid;  but  certain  selected  species  of 
lactic  acid  bacteria,  notably  B.  bulgaricus,  may  carry  the  fer- 
mentation to  such  a  point  that  the  milk  may  contain  2  per  cent 
of  lactic  acid  or  even  more. 

The  use  of  fermented  milk  in  combating  the  putrefactive  bac- 
teria of  the  large  intestine  is  based  on  the  theory  that  the  intro- 
iduction  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  or  of  lactic  acid  itself  into  the 
j  intestine  makes  the  conditions  unfavorable  for  the  putrefactive 
bacteria.  The  question  therefore  arises  whether  the  lactic  acid 
taken  in  the  food  reaches  the  large  intestine  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  be  effective  or  is  absorbed  from  the  small  intestine,  and 
whether  it  is  possible  to  establish  a  predominance  of  lactic  acid 
bacteria  in  the  intestinal  tract  by  taking  rich  cultures  of  such 
bacteria  in  the  food.  The  evidence  on  these  points  is  conflicting, 
some  observers  reporting  much  diminution  of  intestinal  putre- 
faction as  the  result  of  drinking  fermented  milk,  while  others 
find  little  if  any  effect.  Herter  held  that  the  total  amount 
of  protein  in  the  food  is  an  important  factor  in  the  problem  and 


114 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


that  the  mere  addition  of  fermented  milk  to  the  diet  may  do  as 
much  harm  as  good  through  making  the  total  amount  of  protein 
excessive,  whereas  improvement  may  result  if  the  fermented 
miljc  is  substituted  for  some  high-protein  food  so  that  the  total 
protein  eaten  is  either  kept  constant  or  diminished. 

The  evidence  at  present  available  leaves  the  therapeutic  value 
of  fermented  milks  somewhat  uncertain,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  they  are  valuable  foods  especially  for  those  who  either 
relish  or  digest  the  fermented  milk  better  than  the  unfermented. 
The  advantages  of  milk  as  a  food  (see  latter  part  of  last  chapter) 
apply  in  general  to  fermented  milk  also. 

Some  representative  analyses  of  fermented  milks  are  given 
in  Table  7. 

Table  7.    Analyses  of  Some  Fermented  Milks 


Buttermilk 
(Larsen  and  White) 

Kumiss  or  Kefir  (Hammarsten) 

2  days  old 

4  days  old 

6  days  old 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Water  .     .     . 

9039 

88.12 

88.79 

89.00 

Fat.     .     .     . 

0.50 

3.62 

3(^3 

i(>i 

Protein      .     . 

3.60 

3-03 

307 

307 

Milk  Sugar    . 

4.06 

3-7° 

2.24 

1.67 

Lactic  Acid    . 

0.80 

0.66 

0.83 

0.90 

Alcohol 

0.23 

0.81 

1. 10 

Ash       ... 

0-7S 

0.64 

0.63 

0.63 

Evaporated  or  Condensed  Milk 

By  evaporating  a  large  proportion  of  the  water  from  milk, 
the  keeping  property  is  much  improved  and  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense of  subsequent  handling  and  transportation  of  the  product 
are  further  reduced  through  the  saving  in  bulk  and  weight. 
Sugar  is  often  added  as  a  preservative.  Condensed  milk,  whether 
sweetened  or  unsweetened,  may  be  marketed  in  bottles  like  ordi- 
nary milk,  in  which  case  it  is  intended  for  use  within  a  very 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS  MILK  PRODUCTS     115 

few  days,  or  it  may  be  sealed  in  tin  cans  for  indefinite  keeping 
like  other  canned  foods. 

The  condensed  milk  industry  began  with  the  granting  of  a 
patent  for  "  concentrating  sweet  milk  by  evaporation  in  vacuo  " 
to  Gail  Borden,  Jr.,  in  1856.  In  1880  the  total  production 
(United  States  Census)  in  the  United  States  was  13,033,267 
pounds  valued  at  $1,547,588  ;  in  1890,  37,926,821  pounds  valued 
at  $3,586,927;  in  1900,  186,921,787  pounds  valued  at 
$11,888,792  ;  in  1909,  494,796,544pounds  valued  at  $33,563,129. 
It  is  evident  that  the  industry  is  growing  very  rapidly  and  the 
present  production  is  doubtless  much  above  that  of  1909.  The 
census  returns  for  that  year  show  about  equal  amounts  of  the 
sweetened  and  the  unsweetened  product. 

Sweetened  condensed  milk  is  manufactured  by  a  carefully 
regulated  process  which  in  brief  outline  may  be  described  as 
follows:  Fresh  cows'  milk  is  heated  to  160°  to  180°  F.  to  expel 
the  dissolved  gases  and  then  run  into  vacuum  pans,  about  16 
pounds  of  sugar  per  100  pounds  of  fresh  milk  is  added,  and  the 
mixture  evaporated  in  vacuo  at  a  temperature  of  130°  to  150°  F. 
until  the  desired  concentration  is  reached,  usualTy  until"  one 
pound  of  the  final  product  represents  about  2^  to  2I  pounds  of 
fresh  milk.  This  final  product  is  of  semiliquid  consistency 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.29  and  averages  about  30  per 
cent  water,  30  per  cent  milk  solids,  and  40  per  cent  cane  sugar. 

The  products  of  individual  manufactures  may  vary  consider- 
ably from  this  average.  In  24  analyses  compiled  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,^  the  variations  were  as 
follows  :  water  21.6  to  37.3,  average  26.9  per  cent ;  protein 
6.0  to  10.5,  average  8.8  per  cent;  fat  0.4  to  10.6,  average  8.3 
per  cent;  carbohydrates,  44.4  to  56.9,  average  54.1  per  cent; 
ash.  1.5  to  2.1,  average  1.9  per  cent.  Here  the  most  noticeable 
variation  is  in  the  fat  content,  due  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
analyses  represent  the  product  obtained  from  milk  which  had 

'  Bulletin  28,  OflSce  of  Experiment  Stations. 


Il6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

previously  been  skimmed.  Under  present  regulations  such  a 
product  must  be  labeled  "  condensed  skim  milk  "  to  avoid 
confusion  with  the  whole  milk  product.  The  latter  has  been 
standardized  by  the  Association  of  Ofhcial  Agricultural  Chemists 
as  follows : 

"  Sweetened  condensed  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  considerable 
portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated  and  to  which  sugar  (sucrose) 
has  been  added,  and  contains  not  less  than  28  per  cent  of  mill^ 
solids  of  which  not  less  than  27.15  per  cent  is  milk  fat."  .  /^ 

{Note.    Twenty-seven  and  five  tenths  per  cent  of  twentyt/^ 
eight  per  cent  equals  seven  and  seven  tenths  per  cent  of  fat  vsx^t'M 
the  condensed  milk.)  y 

Unsweetened  condensed  milk,  commonly  called  evaporated  '- 
milk,  is  prepared  in  essentially  the  same  manner  as  described  ' 
under  sweetened  condensed  milk  above,  except  that  no  sugar  is 
added,  the  ratio  of  concentration  is  usually  slightly  less,  and  the 
final  product,  after  sealing  in  cans,  is  sometimes  sterilized  by 
heating  at  226°  F.  to  240°  F.  for  from  30  to  6o^minutes.  The 
final  product  has  a  creamy  consistency  and  a  specific  gravity 
of  about  1.065.  According  to  the  standards  recommended  by 
the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  in  1906,  it  must 
contain  not  less  than  28  per  cent  of  milk  solids  with  a  minimum 
of  7.7  per  cent  fat. 

More  recently,^  as  the  result  of  further  study,  the  Board  of 
Food  and  Drug  Inspection  has  revised  the  requirement,  raising 
the  fat  standard  slightly  and  allowing  a  somewhat  lower  degree 
of  concentration,  and  therefore  somewhat  lower  percentage  of 
solids-not-fat,  in  the  case  of  milk  having  more  than  the  required 
amount  of  fat.  This  is  accomplished  by  requirement  that  the 
percentage  of  fat  shall  be  not  less  than  2^8,  and  the  sum  of  the 
percentages  of  total  solids  and  fat  shall  be  not  less  than  34.3. 
In  the  same  decision  it  was  specified  that  evaporated  milk  should 
be  prepared  from  milk  of  good  quality  and  contain  no  added 
'  Food  Inspection  Decision  131. 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     II7 

butter  or  butter  oil  incorporated  either  with  the  whole  or 
skimmed  milk  before  evaporation  or  with  the  evaporated  milk 
at  any  stage  of  manufacture. 

To  make  100  pounds  of  evaporated  milk  which  shall  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection,  in 
solids  and  fat,  will  require  240  pounds  of  milk  which  contains 
3.25  per  cent  of  fat  and  8.5  per  cent  of  other  solids,  or  204  pounds 
of  milk  containing  4  per  cent  of  fat  and  8.9  per  cent  of  other 
solids. 

Whether  the  evaporated  milk  can  be  sold  at  retail  at  a  price 
which  makes  it  more  economical  to  the  consumer  than  an  equiv- 
alent amount  of  fresh  milk  of  corresponding  sanitary  quality 
will  depend  upon  local  conditions.  In  the  markets  of  the  large 
cities  at  present  (and  naturally  to  a  still  greater  extent  in  the 
small  towns  of  the  agricultural  regions)  the  fresh  milk  appears 
to  be  more  economical  for  the  retail  consumer.  In  markets  at 
a  distance  from  dairy  districts  the  economic  advantage  will 
more  often  lie  with  the  evaporated  product.  The  fact  that 
evaporated  milk  is  less  perishable  than  fresh  milk  is  a  decided 
advantage  to  purchasers  who  use  milk  for  the  manufacture  of 
other  products  for  which  there  is  a  fluctuating  demand,  such  as 
ice  cream  and  special  bakery  products. 

Dried  or  Powdered  Milk 

Several  processes  have  been  invented  for  reducing  milk  to  the 
form  of  a  dry  powder.  The  advantages  of  this  are  of  course 
the  great  saving  in  bulk  and  weight  and  the  fact  that  the  pow- 
dered milk  is  even  less  subject  to  contamination  or  deterioration 
than  evaporated  or  condensed  milk.  Among  the  devices  for 
drying  milk  on  a  commercial  scale  are:  (i)  passing  the  milk  in 
thin  layers  over  heated  surfaces  preferably  in  vacuo,  (2)  blow- 
ing air  through  layers  of  milk  which  have  been  partially  evapo- 
rated on   perforated  drying   cylinders,  (3)    spraying  partially 


Il8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

evaporated  milk  into  warm,  dry  air.  The  latter  process  as 
described  by  Merrill  ^  is  in  outline  as  follows : 

Fresh  whole  milk  is  partially  evaporated  in  a  vacuum  pan 
with  precautions  to  prevent  any  of  the  albumin  from  coagulat- 
ing on  the  walls  of  the  chamber.  The  milk,  still  in  a  fluid  con- 
dition, is  then  drawn  from  the  vacuum  pan  and  sprayed  into  a 
current  of  hot  air.  The  remaining  moisture  is  thus  instantly 
evaporated  and  the  particles  of  milk  solids  fall  like  snow.  This 
milk  powder  is  said  to  contain  less  than  2  per  cent  moisture 
and  to  consist  of  particles  from  2'i^'^  to  j^^tu  inch  in  diameter, 
in  which  the  fat,  sugar,  and  albumin  of  the  milk  exist  in  a  dry 
state,  chemically  unchanged. 

This  process  appears  to  be  well  established  commercially, 
the  product  being  purchased  largely  by  bakers. 

According  to  data  published  by  Wells  in  the  Yearbook  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  there  had  already,  in 
191 1,  been  granted  over  60  patents  covering  devices  for  the 
manufacture  of  dried  milk,  and  10  factories  were  engaged  in 
carrying  on  the  industry  in  the  United  States.  It  was  estimated 
that  about  8,500,000  pounds  of  milk  powder  were  made  in  this 
country  in  1910.  Most  of  this  was  skim  milk  powder,  because 
legal  restrictions  hamper  the  sale  of  skim  milk  as  such  to  the 
consumer,  while  on  the  other  hand  it  is  more  easily  dried  than 
whole  milk  and  yields  a  product  which  is  more  readily  kept,  the 
fat  of  the  whole  milk  powder  being  liable  to  become  rancid  on 
storage  unless  kept  under  special  precautions. 

It  is  believed  that  the  industry  of  drying  both  whole  and 
skimmed  milk  has  grown  much  since  the  above  statistics  were 
collected  and  is  still  growing  rapidly. 

Cream 

Cream  may  be  obtained  from  milk  either  by  gravity  or  by 
centrifugal  force.     The  prevailing  method  at  present  is  by  means 
*  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  August,  1909. 


CHEESE   AND    MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     II9 

of  centrifugal  separators  in  which  the  milk  flows  continuously 
into  a  rotating  bowl  containing  thin  metal  plates  which  separate 
the  milk  into  inclined  sheets  in  which  by  centrifugal  force  the 
heavier  "  skim  "  milk  is  thrown  toward  the  outer  rim  ^  and  the 
lighter  fat  globules  are  forced  toward  the  center.  Thus  while 
the  separator  is  in  operation  a  continuous  stream  of  cream  and 
another  of  skimmed  milk  are  obtained  from  the  inner  and  outer 
layers  respectively  of  the  rotated  bowl  of  milk.  In  order  that 
the  skimmed  milk  shall  not  be  thrown  out  of  the  machine  with 
too  great  force,  the  tubes  which  receive  it  from  the  outer  portion 
of  the  bowl  are  carried  back  toward  the  center  of  the  bowl  where 
they  discharge  into  an  outlet  pipe.  The  size  of  the  skim  milk 
outlet  may  be  made  to  bear  any  desired  relation  to  the  size  of 
inlet,  size  of  bowl,  and  speed  of  rotation,  and  thus  any  desired 
proportion  of  the  whole  milk  may  be  drawn  off  as  skimmed  milk 
while  the  remainder  is  forced  to  the  center  of  the  bowl  and  dis- 
charged through  the  cream  outlet. 

If  the  skimmed  milk  outlet  is  set  to  discharge  only  one  half 
of  the  milk  entering  the  bowl,  the  other  half  must  discharge 
through  the  cream  pipe  and  a  large  volume  of  very  thin  cream 
having  only  twice  the  fat  content  of  the  original  milk  will  be 
obtained. 

If  the  skimmed  milk  tube  be  set  to  take  nine  tenths  of  the 
amount  of  milk  which  flows  in,  a  small  amount  of  rich  cream 
having  about  ten  times  the  fat  content  of  the  original  milk  will 
result. 

To  a  considerable  extent  these  proportions  and  the  resulting 
amount  and  richness  of  the  cream  may  be  controlled  by  regulat- 
ing the  rate  of  inflow  of  milk  without  changing  the  size  of  the 
discharge  pipes  or  the  rate  of  running  the  machine.  Thus,  as 
illustrated  by  Wing :  "  If  the  milk  is  turned  into  the  bowl  at 
such  a  rate  that  0.8  escapes  through  the  skimmed  milk  outlet, 

'  Suspended  solids  heavier  than  the  skim  milk  are  forced  against  the  outer  wall 
and  result  in  a  deposit  of  "separator  slime." 


I20  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

we  shall  have  0.8  skimmed  milk  and  0.2  cream.  If  now  we 
reduce  the  rate  of  inflow  by  o.i,  we  shall  get  just  as  much 
skimmed  milk  as  before,  but  only  half  as  much  cream;  or  if 
the  inflow  is  increased  by  o.i  we  shall  get  the  same  amount  of 
skimmed  milk  and  one  and  one  half  times  as  much  cream." 
In  the  first  case,  we  should  get  from  100  pounds  of  milk  with 
4  per  cent  fat,  80  pounds  of  skimmed  milk  with,  say,  0.1  per  cent 
of  fat,  and  20  pounds  of  cream  with  19.6  per  cent  fat;  in  the 
second  case  from  90  pounds  of  the  same  milk,  10  pounds  of  cream 
with  35.2  per  cent  fat ;  in  the  third  case  from  no  pounds  of  the 
same  milk,  30  pounds  of  cream  with  14.4  per  cent  of  fat.  This 
assumes  that  the  completeness  of  the  separation  will  be  th3 
same,  which  should  be  true  so  long  as  the  separator  is  run  within 
the  range  of  its  capacity.  McKay  and  Larsen  state  that  in 
skimming  milk  for  buttermaking,  separators  are  usually  run 
to  yield  cream  with  25  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  fat,  but  that  most 
separators  will  do  good  skimming  even  up  to  a  cream  of  60  per 
cent  fat  content.  When  the  separator  is  well  managed,  the 
skim  milk  does  not  contain  over  0.1  per  cent  fat. 

Since  cream  is  an  artificial  product  of  such  variable  composi- 
tion, it  is  obvious  that  any  standard  which  may  be  set  for  the 
fat  content  of  cream  must  necessarily  be  rather  arbitrary.  The 
standards  which  have  been  adopted  appear  to  have  been  based 
largely  on  the  fat  content  of  the  cream  formerly  obtained  by 
the  gravity  process. 

The  standard  recommended  by  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists  requires  not  less  than  18  per  cent  of  milk 
fat ;  and  this  has  been  adopted  ^  by  the  states  of  California, 
Georgia,  Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Louisi- 
ana, Maine,  Maryland,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire, 
New  York,  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  Oklahoma,  Pennsylvania, 

*  All  these  statements  regarding  state  standards  are  based  on  Circular  218  (Re- 
vised) of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
dated  November  i,  igi3. 


CHEESE  AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     121 

South  Dakota,  Utah,  Virginia,  Washington,  Wisconsin,  and 
Wyoming.  Minnesota,  Montana,  Oregon,  and  the  District  of 
Columbia  require  20  per  cent  fat ;  Colorado,  Iowa,  and  New 
Jersey  require  16  per  cent;  Massachusetts  and  North  Dakota 
require  1 5  per  cent  of  fat ;  Colorado  and  Kansas  have  standards 
of  25  per  cent  fat  in  cream  for  buttermaking. 

Market  cream  is  apt  to  be  at  least  half  a  day  older  than  the 
corresponding  grade  of  market  milk  and  almost  invariably  has 
a  higher  bacteria  content. 

The  Commission  on  Milk  Standards  recommends  that  cream 
be  classified  on  the  same  plan  as  milk  except  for  the  number  of 
bacteria  permitted,  which  may  be  five  times  the  number  per- 
mitted in  the  corresponding  grade  of  milk. 

The  Commission  recommended  that  all  cream  be  sold  either 
on  a  guaranteed  fat  content  or  with  a  minimum  standard  of 
18  per  cent  milk  fat ;  also  that  cream  should  contain  no  con- 
stituent foreign  to  normal  milk. 

Ice  Cream  and  Related  Products 

According  to  the  Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
the  output  of  the  ice  cream  industry  in  the  United  States  is 
valued  at  considerably  more  than  $100,000,000  annually.  The 
ice  cream  trade  has  grown  enormously  in  recent  years  and  ap- 
pears to  be  still  increasing.  Creameries  which  are  favorably 
located  find  it  often  much  more  profitable  to  convert  their  cream 
into  ice  cream  than  into  butter. 

The  term  "  ice  cream  "  is  commonly  applied  to  a  variety  of 
products,  including  what  would  more  accurately  be  called  frozen 
custards  and  water  ices.  There  is  not  yet  a  consensus  of  opinion 
among  food  control  authorities  as  to  whether  the  wider  applica- 
tion of  the  term  "  ice  cream  "  is  justified  by  common  usage  or 
whether  the  narrower  and  more  literal  usage  should  be  insisted 
upon. 


122  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

The  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  in  1906 
proposed  the  following  standards: 

Ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream  and  sugar, 
with  or  without  a  natural  flavoring,  and  contains  not  less  than 
14  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar, 
and  sound,  clean,  mature  fruits,  and  contains  not  less  than  12 
per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar, 
and  sound,  non-rancid  nuts. and  contains  not  less  than  12  per 
cent  of  milk  fat. 

In  igii  the  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection  ruled  against 
the  use  of  "  homogenized "  (finely  divided  by  mechanical 
means)  butter  fat  in  making  ice  cream. 

As  yet  there  has  not  been  any  general  tendency  throughout 
the  country  to  adopt  and  enforce  these  stringent  standards. 
Neither  is  there  yet  any  general  agreement  as  to  whether  or  to 
what  extent  such  materials  as  starch,  flour,  eggs,  gelatin,  and 
gums  should  be  permitted. 

Those  who  desire  to  follow  this  subject  further  will  find  refer- 
ences at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  Special  attention  may  be 
directed  to  Bulletin  155  of  the  Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  in  which  the  making  of  ice  cream  is  discussed  in  detail, 
and  to  the  article  on  ice  cream  standards  by  Wiley  in  Bulletin 
56  of  the  United  States  Public  Health  Service,  in  which  are  dis- 
cussed numerous  trade  practices  which  the  standards  above 
given  were  designed  to  control. 

Until  the  matter  of  terminology  and  standards  is  more  defi- 
nitely settled,  statements  regarding  the  composition  and  food 
value  of  these  products  cannot  be  very  definite.  An  ice  cream 
which  meets  the  standards  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agri- 
cultural Chemists  is  evidently  a  fairly  concentrated  food  mate- 
rial, while  many  of  the  ices  commonly  called  ice  creams  are  essen- 
tially frozen  beverages.     Frozen  products  made  from  fermented 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     1 23 

milk,  sugar,  eggs,  and  fruit,  fruit  juices,  or  other  flavoring  have 
recently  been  introduced  under  the  general  name  of  "  lacto." 

REFERENCES 
I 

Buchanan.    Household  Bacteriology. 

Conn.     Bacteria  in  Milk  and  its  Products. 

DoANE  and  Lawson.     Varieties  of  Cheese :    Descriptions  and  Analyses. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 

Bulletin  105. 
KoNiG.     Chemie  der  Menschlichen  Nahrungs  und  Genussmittel. 
Langworthy  and  Hunt.     Cheese  and  its  Economical  Uses  in  the  Diet. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  487. 
Larsen  and  White.     Dairy  Technology. 
Marshall.     Microbiology. 
Stohmann.     Milch  und  Molkerei-produkte. 

Van  Slyke  and  Publovv.     The  Science  and  Practice  of  Cheesemaking. 
Washburn.     Principles    and    Practice    of    Ice-cream    Making.     Vermont 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  155. 
Wiley.     Foods  and  their  Adulterations. 
Wing.     Milk  and  its  Products. 

II 

Papers  and  Special  Bulletins  on  Cheese 

Alvord,  Babcock,  Russell,  and  Van  Slyke.     The  Cold  Curing  of  Cheese. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 

Bulletin  49  (1903). 
Babcock,  Russell,  and  Baer.     Shrinkage  of  Cold-Cured  Cheese  during 

Ripening.     Experiments  in  Paraffining  Cheese.     Wisconsin  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  loi  (1903). 
Van  Slyke,  Smith,  and  Hart.     Experiments  in  Curing  Cheese  at  Different 

Temperatures.     New   York   State   Agricultural  Experiment   Station, 

Bulletin  234  (1903). 
Van  Slyke  and  Hart.     Conditions  Affecting  Chemical  Changes  in  Cheese 

Ripening.     New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 

236  (1903). 
Rogers.     The  Relation  of  Bacteria  to  the  Flavors  of  Cheddar  Cheese. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 

Bulletin  62  (1904). 


124  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Russell  and  Hastings.  Relation  of  Bacterial  Life  to  Development  of 
Flavor  in  Cold-Cured  Cheddar  Cheese.  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  21st  Annual  Report,  pages  155-163  (1904). 

Russell  and  Hastings.  A  Swiss  Cheese  Trouble  caused  by  a  Gas-forming 
Yeast.    Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  1 28  (1905). 

Van  Slyke  and  Hart.  Some  of  the  Relations  of  Casein  and  Paracasein 
to  Bases  and  Acids  and  their  Application  to  Cheddar  Cheese.  New 
York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  261  (1905). 

Thom.  Fungi  in  Cheese  Ripening ;  Camembert  and  Roquefort  (with 
bibliography).  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  82  (1906). 

DoANE.  The  Cold  Curing  of  American  Cheese,  with  digest  of  previous 
work  on  the  subject.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  85  (1906). 

IssAjEFF.  Directions  for  Making  Camembert  Type  of  Cheese.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin 
98  (1907). 

Van  Slyke  and  Bosworth.  Some  of  the  First  Chemical  Changes  in  Ched- 
dar Cheese.  New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Techni- 
cal Bulletin  4  (1907). 

DoANE.  Development  of  Lactic  Acid  in  Cheddar  Cheese  Making.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin 
no  (1908). 

Dox.  Proteolytic  Changes  in  the  Ripening  of  Camembert  Cheese  (with 
bibliography).  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  109  (1908). 

Harding  and  Prucha.  The  Bacterial  Flora  of  Cheddar  Cheese.  New 
York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Technical  Bulletin  8  (1908). 

DoANE.  The  Influence  of  Lactic  Acid  on  the  Quality  of  Cheese  of  the 
Cheddar  Type.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  123  (1910). 

Langworthy.  Cheese  and  Other  Substitutes  for  Meat  in  the  Diet.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  359-370. 

Sammis,  Suzuki,  and  Laabs.  Factors  controlling  the  Moisture  Content  of 
Cheese  Curds.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  122  (1910). 

DoANE.  The  Digestibility  of  Cheese.  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  166  (191 1). 

Dox.  The  Composition  of  True  Roquefort  Cheese.  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  22,  pages  239-242 
(1911).    . 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     1 25 

Van  Dam.     The  Cheese  Mass  of  Edam  Cheese.     Centralblatt  fiir  Bakteri- 

ologie  und  Parasitenkunde,  II  Abtheil,  Vol.  32,  pages  1-40  (191 1). 
Hastings,    Evans,  and   Hart.     The    Bacteriology   of    Cheddar    Cheese. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 

Bulletin  150  (191 2). 
Hastings,  Evans,  and  Hart.     Studies  on  the  Factors  Concerned  in  the 

Ripening   of    Cheddar    Cheese.     Wisconsin    Agricultural   Experiment 

Station,  Research  Bulletin  25  (1912). 
Langworthy  and  Hunt.     Cheese  and  its  Economical  Uses  in  the  Diet. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  487  (191 2). 
NiERENSTEiN.     Contribution     to     the     Chemistry    of     Cheddar    Cheese. 

Journal  of  Agricultural  Science,  Vol.  4,  pages  225-244  (191 2). 
Sammis  and  Bruhn.     The  Manufacture  of  Cheddar  Cheese  from  Pas- 
teurized Milk.     Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Research 

Bulletin  27  (191 2). 
Reich.     Cheese  as  a  Food  and  its  Economy.     Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,  Vol.  80, 

pages  169-195  (1913). 
Thom  and  Currie.     The  Dominance  of  Roquefort  Mold  in  Cheese.     Journal 

of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  15,  pages  249-258  (1913). 
Currie.     Flavor  of  Roquefort  Cheese.     Journal  of  Agricultural  Research, 

Vol.  2,  pages  1-14  (1914). 
Hart,  Hastings,  Flint,  and  Evans.     Relation  of  the  Action  of  Certain 

Bacteria  to  the  Ripening  of  Cheese  of  the  Cheddar  Type.     Journal 

of  Agricultural  Research,  Vol.  2,  pages  193-216  (1914). 

Fermented  Milks 

FUHRMAKN.     On  Yoghurt.     Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs- 

und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  13,  pages  598-604  (1907). 
Engel.     Yoghurt  or  Sour  Milk  and  its  Method  of  Manufacture.     Mol- 

kerei-Zeitung,  Vol.  22,  pages  1461-1463  (1908). 
Hastings.     A  Preliminary  Note  on  a  Group  of  Lactic  Acid  Bacteria  not 

previously  Described  in  America.     Science,  Vol.  28,  page  656  (1908). 
Herschell.     On  the  Use  of  Selected  Lactic  Acid  Bacilli  and  Soured  Milk 

in  the  Treatment  of  Some  Forms  of  Chronic  Ill-health.     Lancet,  Vol. 

175,  pages  371-374  (1968). 
Herter  and  Kendall.     The  Fate  of  B.  bulgaricus  in  the  Digestive  Tract  of 

a  Monkey.     Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages  293-302 

(1908). 
Klotz.     Bacteriology  of  Yoghurt.     Centralblatt  fiir  Bakteriologie,  Par- 
asitenkunde und    Infectiouskrankheiten,  II   Abtheil,  Vol.   21,  pages 

392-398  (1908). 


126  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

LtJERSSEN  and  Kuhn.  Yoghurt,  the  Bulgarian  Sour  Milk.  Centralblatt 
fiir  Bakteriologie,  Parasitenkunde  und  Infectionskrankheiten,  II 
Abtheil,  Vol.  20,  pages  234-248  (1908). 

PiFFARD.  A  Study  of  Sour  Milks.  New  York  Medical  Journal,  Vol.  87, 
pages  1-9  (1908) 

Stanislaus.  Kefir  and  its  Preparation.  American  Journal  of  Pharmacy, 
Vol.  80,  pages  20-26  (1908). 

Baldwin.  Influence  of  Lactic  Acid  Ferments  upon  Intestinal  Putrefaction. 
Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  7,  pages  37-48  (1909). 

Hastings  and  Hammar.  The  Occurrence  and  Distribution  of  Organisms 
similar  to  the  B.  bulgaricus  of  Yoghurt.  Centralblatt  fiir  Bakteriologie, 
Parasitenkunde  und  Infectionskrankheiten,  II  Abtheil,  Vol.  25,  pages 
419-426  (1909). 

Heinemann.  Lactic  Acid  as  an  Agent  to  Reduce  Intestinal  Putrefaction. 
Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  Vol.  52,  pages  372-376 
(1909). 

Heinemann  and  Hefferan.  A  Study~of  B.  bulgaricus.  Journal  of  Infec- 
tious Diseases,  Vol.  6,  pages  304-318  (1909). 

Herter.  On  the  Therapeutic  Action  of  Fermented  Milk.  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  Vol.  74,  pages  31-42  (1909). 

Metchnikoff.  The  Utility  of  Lactic  Microbes  with  Explanation  of  the 
Author's  Views  on  Longevity.  Century  Magazine,  Vol.  79,  pages  53- 
58  (1909). 

Whiie  and  Avery.  Observations  on  Certain  Lactic  Acid  Bacteria  of  the 
so-called  Bulgaricus  Type.  Centralblatt  fiir  Bakteriologie,  Parasi- 
tenkunde und  Infectionskrankheiten,  II  Abtheil,  Vol.  25,  pages  161-178 
(1909). 

Rogers.  Fermented  Milks.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  171  (191 1). 

Hohenadel.  Yoghurt,  with  especial  Reference  to  Yoghurt  Dried  Prepara- 
tions.   Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,  Vol.  78,  pages  193-218  (1913). 

Condensed  and  Dried  Milks 

Booth.     Dry  Milk.     Chemical  Engineer,  Oct.,  1905. 

Hissey.  (Use  of  Dried  Milk  as  an  Infant  Food  in  Summer.)  Archiv  fiir 
Kinderheilkunde,  Vol.  46,  pages  63-95  (1907). 

Merrill.  Economic  Reasons  for  the  Reduction  of  Milk  to  Powder.  Jour- 
nal of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  i,  pages  540-545 
(1909). 

Jordan  and  Mott.     Condensed  Milk  and  its  Value  for  General  Use  and  for 


CHEESE   AND   MISCELLANEOUS   MILK   PRODUCTS     1 27 

Infant  Feeding.    American  Journal  of  Public  Hygiene,  Vol.  20,  pages 

391-402  (1910). 
Ballner    and    von    Stockert.     Milk    Powder.     Zeitschrift    fiir    Unter- 

suchung   der   Nahrungs-  und   Genussmittel,  Vol.  22,   pages   648-651 

(1911). 
Fleming.     Analysis  of  Dried  Milk  and  Cream  (with  results  on  10  samples). 

Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages  543-544 

(1912). 
Stewart.     On  Some  Dried  Milks  and  Patent  Foods.     Original  Communi- 
cations, 8th  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  18,  pages 

329-338  (1912). 
KuHL.     Dried  Milk  Products.     Hygienische   Rundschau,  Vol.    23,  pages 

709-713  (1913). 
Wells.     Condensed   and   Desiccated   Milk.     United   States   Department 

Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  191 2,  pages  335-344  (1913). 

Cream,  Ice  Cream,  and  Lacto 

Melick.  Variations  in  Fat  Content  of  Separator  Cream.  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  137  (1906). 

Wiley.  Ice  Cream.  United  States  Public  Health  Service,  Hygienic  Labo- 
ratory, Bulletin  56,  pages  249-312  (1909). 

Alexander.  Effect  of  Gelatin  in  Ice  Cream.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chemie  un4 
Industrie  der  KoUoide,  Vol.  5,  pages  101-103  (1909). 

White.  The  Grading  of  Cream.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  275-280  (1910). 

Mortensen  and  Gordon.  Lacto:  A  New  and  Healthful  Frozen  Dairy 
Product.     Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  118  (1911). 

Pennington,  Hepburn,  et  al.  Bacterial  and  Enzymic  Changes  in  Milk  and 
Cream  at  0°  C.  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  16,  pages  331- 
368  (1913). 


CHAPTER   V 

EGGS 

Doubtless  eggs  of  various  kinds  were  among  the  very  earliest 
of  human  foods.  At  the  present  time  only  the  eggs  of  hens, 
ducks,  geese,  guinea  fowl,  and  turkeys  are  commonly  used  for 
food ;  and  of  these,  hens'  eggs  are  so  much  more  abundant  than 
all  others  that,  unless  otherwise  explained,  all  statements  made 
here  may  be  understood  as  referring  to  hens'  eggs. 

Production 

The  production  of  eggs  is  widely  distributed.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  nine  tenths  of  all  farms  in  the  United  States  keep 
chickens  and  produce  eggs.  It  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  7 
that  in  poultry  culture  there  is  less  tendency  toward  concen- 
tration in  particular  regions  than  is  the  case  with  many  other 
food  industries. 

It  is  difficult  to  measure  the  egg  production  of  the  country, 
because  eggs  are  so  largely  consumed  by  the  producer  or  sold  at 
retail  without  going  through  trade  channels  from  which  accurate 
statistics  can  be  obtained.  The  United  Census  Bureau  esti- 
mates the  egg  industry  at  seventeen  and  one  half  dozen  eggs 
per  capita  per  year,  i.e.  an  average  of  210  eggs  per  year  or  4 
eggs  per  week  for  each  person  in  the  United  States.  The  value 
of  these  eggs  (at  point  of  production)  is  estimated  by  the  Census 
Bureau  at  somewhat  over  $3oo,cxx),ooo  annually  (for  the  year 
1909,  $306,689,000). 

',  128 


EGGS 


129 


I30  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

According  to  Pennington  and  Pierce  ^  only  the  States  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Mis- 
souri, Texas,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky  produce  more  eggs  than 
are  consumed  within  their  own  borders,  and  this  surplus  pro- 
duction does  not  continue  throughout  the  year,  but  only  during 
those  months  which  are  most  favorable  to  laying.  From  Ten- 
nessee and  Kentucky  most  eggs  are  sent  to  market  during  the 
period  from  December  to  April ;  from  Southern  Ohio,  southern 
Kansas,  Missouri,  and  Texas  many  eggs  are  shipped  during 
March  and  April;  in  the  later  spring  northern  Kansas,  Iowa, 
Illinois,  and  the  Central  States  generally  show  their  heaviest 
production,  while  for  Michigan  and  Minnesota  the  season  is  still 
later. 

For  the  country  as  a  whole,  as  judged  by  the  data  of  the  large 
markets,  the  months  of  March,  April,  May,  and  June  are  those 
in  which  the  largest  number  of  eggs  are  shipped  by  the  producers. 
During  these  months  many  eggs  are  placed  in  cold  storage  to 
be  sold  later  when  the  supply  is  less  abundant  and  the  price 
higher. 

Eggs  are  graded  in  the  market  chiefly  according  to  freshness, 
cleanliness,  size,  cracks,  and  color.  Freshness  in  this  connec- 
tion means  the  firmness  and  state  of  preservation  of  the  egg, 
rather  than  the  mere  length  of  time  since  laying.  This  freshness 
is  determined  chiefly  by  the  process  known  as  candling,  which 
consists  in  looking  through  the  egg  against  a  bright  light,  such  as 
an  incandescent  electric  light,  surrounded  by  an  opaque  shield 
in  which  is  a  hole  shaped  like  an  egg  but  slightly  smaller  in  size. 
The  egg  is  pressed  firmly  against  this  hole  and,  as  the  light  shines 
through  it,  the  yolk,  the  white,  and  the  air-chamber  may  be  ob- 
served. Figure  8  shows  the  appearance  of  a  fresh  sound  egg  and 
of  eggs  which  have  undergone  different  types  of  deterioration. 

Eggs  sufficiently  sound  to  pass  the  candling  test  may  still  be 
subdivided  into  many  grades  according  to  age,  color,  size,  and 

1  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1910. 


EGGS  131 

cleanliness.  It  is  these  qualities  rather  than  chemical  composi- 
tion and  nutritive  value  which  determine  the  very  different 
prices  at  which  eggs  are  sold  in  the  same  market  and  at  the  same 
time. 

Chemical  Composition 

Since  the  price  of  eggs  is  determined  entirely  by  considerations 
other  than  chemical  composition,  and  eggs  are  never  produced 
primarily  for  industrial  uses  in  which  the  components  are 
separated  from  each  other,  there  has  been  no  economic  reason 
for  the  study  of  the  causes  and  extent  of  variations  in  composi- 
tion, and  our  information  on  these  points  is  very  meager  as 
compared,  for  example,  with  the  corresponding  data  for  milk. 
Differences  in  composition  seem  usually  due  to  different  pro- 
portions of  white  and  yolk.  According  to  Langworthy  the 
proportion  of  yolk  (and  therefore  of  fat)  is  greatest  in  the  eggs 
of  those  breeds  which  are  best  adapted  to  fattening.  Other 
things  being  alike,  the  edible  portion  of  white-shelled  and  dark- 
shelled  eggs  shows  essentially  the  same  composition  and  nutritive 
value. 

The  average  composition  of  eggs  of  different  kinds  is 
given  by  Langworthy  on  page  132,  the  fuel  values  being  recal- 
culated by  the  use  of  the  now  accepted  factors.' 

The  figures  given  for  hens'  eggs  in  the  following  table  are  the 
average  of  60  American  analyses  compiled  by  Atwater  and 
Byrant  ^  in  which  the  protein  varied  from  11.6  to  16.0  per  cent 
and  the  fat  from  8.6  to  15.1  per  cent.  The  estimated  averages 
of  European  writers  fall  well  within  these  limits,  but  are  apt  to 
be  somewhat  higher  in  fat  than  the  American  average  as  given 
above.  Thus  the  estimate  of  Konig,  which  is  widely  quoted, 
allows  12.55  P^r  cent  protein  and  12. 11  per  cent  fat. 

Speaking  in  round  numbers  we  may  say  that  the  edible  por- 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bul- 
letin 28. 


132 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  8.    Average  Composition  of  Eggs  (Langworthy) 


Fuel 

Descsuption 

Refuse 
.(Shell) 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Value 

PER 

Pound 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Calories 

Hen: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

II. 2 

65.S 

11.9 

9-3 

0.9 

596 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion    . 

73-7 

13-4 

lo.s 

I.O 

672 

White 

86.2 

12.3 

0.2 

0.6 

231 

Yolk 

49-5 

15-7 

33-2, 

I.I 

1643 

White-shelled  eggs  as  pur- 

chased         

I0.7 

65.6 

11.8 

10.8 

0.6 

655 

Brown-shelled  eggs  as  pur- 

chased   

10.9 

64.8 

11.9 

II. 2 

0.7 

675 

Duck: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased  .     . 

13-7 

60.8 

12. 1 

12.S 

0.8 

730 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion    . 

70-5 

13-3 

14-5 

1.0 

83s 

White       

87.0 

II. I 

0.03 

0.8 

203 

Yolk 

45-8 

16.8 

36.2 

1.2 

1683 

Goose : 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

14.2 

59-7 

12.9 

12.3 

0.9 

737 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion    . 

69-5 

13-8 

14.4 

1.0 

829 

White       

86.3 

11.6 

0.02 

0.8 

211 

Yolk         

44.1 

17-3 

36.2 

1-3 

1793 

Turkey : 

13.8 

63.5 

12.2 

9-7 

0.8 

618 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion    . 

73-7 

13-4 

II. 2 

0.9 

700 

White       

86.7 

II-5 

0.03 

0.8 

210 

Yolk 

48.3 

17.4 

32.9 

1.2 

1660 

Guinea  fowl : 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

16.9 

60.S 

11.9 

9.9 

0.8 

620 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion    . 

72.8 

13-5 

12.0 

0.9 

735 

White       

86.6 

11.6 

0.03 

0.8 

212 

Yolk 

49-7 

16.7 

31.8 

1.2 

1598 

Plover : 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 

9.6 

67-3 

9-7 

10.6 

0.9 

609 

Whole  egg,  edible  portion    . 

74-4 

10.7 

II. 7 

1.0 

662 

Fresh-water  turtle  eggs       .     . 

65.0 

18.1 

II. I 

2.9 

772 

Sea-turtle  eggs 

76.4 

18.8 

9.8 

0.4 

742 

Salted  duck  eggs        .... 

68.0 

12.0 

9.2 

4.0 

594 

EGGS  133 

tion  of  the  egg  contains  72  to  75  per  cent  of  water,  about  i  per 
cent  of  ash,  12  to  14  per  cent  protein,  10  to  12  per  cent  fat; 
or  about  three  fourths  water,  one  eighth  protein,  and  one  eighth 
fat.  Of  the  edible  portion  the  yolk  constitutes  (by  weight) 
a  little  over  one  third  and  the  white  a  little  under  two  thirds ; 
and  these  are  of  very  different  composition.  The  white  is  about 
seven  eighths  water  and  one  eighth  protein  (chiefly  albumin)  with 
a  small  amount  of  ash,  consisting  mainly  of  common  salt  with 
smaller  amounts  of  potassium  salts.  The  yolk  is  about  one 
half  water,  one  third  fat  and  one  sixth  protein  with  more  ash 
than  the  white,  including  relatively  large  amounts  of  phosphorus, 
calcium,  and  iron  in  organic  combination.  Thus  the  yolk  is 
a  much  more  concentrated  food  material  than  the  white,  con- 
taining in  a  given  weight  about  seven  times  as  much  energy,  as 
well  as  larger  amounts  of  protein  and  of  the  chief  ash  constit- 
uents. 

The  nature  of  the  nutrients  in  eggs  is  of  almost  as  much 
interest  and  importance  as  their  amount.  The  fact  that  when 
an  egg  is  kept  at  a  proper  temperature  for  about  three  weeks 
without  the  addition  of  anything  from  without,  it  produces 
a  chick  so  well  developed  as  to  begin  at  once  to  walk  and  to  eat 
the  same  food  as  the  adult,  suggests  at  once  that  the  egg  must 
contain  substances  which  are  very  efficient  as  sources  both  of  the 
energy  and  the  materials  for  growth  and  development. 

The  fat  of  egg  is  practically  all  in  the  yolk,  and  like  milk  fat 
it  exists  in  a  finely  emulsified  condition,  so  that  it  is  capable  of 
digestion  in  the  stomach  as  well  as  in  the  intestine.  Volhard 
has  reported  an  experiment  in  which  78  per  cent  of  the  fat  of 
egg  yolk  was  digested  in  the  stomach.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
egg  fat,  probably  at  least  one  fourth,  consists  of  phosphorized 
fats  (lecithins  together  with  closely  related  substances,  such  as 
kephalins).  Egg  lecithin  is  usually  taken  as  typical  of  the 
"  phosphorized  fats,"  "  phospholipines,"  or  "  phosphatids." 
It  has  the  chemical  structure  of  a  fat  in  which  one  of  the  fatty 


134  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

acid  radicles  is  replaced  by  a  radicle  of  phosphoric  acid  in  com- 
bination with  a  nitrogenous  organic  base  (choline).  The  typical 
lecithin  molecule  thus  contains  one  atom  each  of  phosphorus 
and  nitrogen;  that  described  by  Hoppe-Seyler  had  the  com- 
position C44H90NPO9. 

Studies  of  the  loss  of  weight  together  with  the  amount  of 
carbon  dioxide  produced  during  incubation  show  that  the  energ}'' 
expended  in  the  developing  embryo  comes  chiefly  from  the 
utilization  of  fatty  matter,  and  analyses  at  different  stages 
of  development  indicate  that  lecithin  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  the  chick.  Such  observations 
gave  rise  for  a  time  to  an  exaggerated  impression  of  the  in- 
fluence of  lecithin  upon  growth.  While  we  do  not  now  expect 
to  be  able  to  produce  abnormally  large  or  rapid  growth  by 
lecithin  feeding,  there  are  reasons  to  believe  that  normal  growth 
is  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  a  certain  amount  of  lecithin 
or  related  substance  in  the  food,  and  that  therefore  the  lecithin  ' 
has  a  food  value  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  a  corresponding 
amount  of  simple  fat  and  inorganic  phosphate. 

Recent  investigations,  especially  those  of  McCullom  and 
his  associates  at  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
appear  to  demonstrate  that  the  nature  of  the  fatty  acids  in  both 
the  ordinary  fat  and  the  phosphorized  fat  of  the  egg  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  food  of  the  hen.  This  is  consistent  with  earlier 
observations  relating  to  the  influence  of  the  food  upon  butter 
fat  and  upon  the  fat  of  the  adipose  tissues.  (See  Chemistry  of 
Food  and  Nutrition,  Chapter  IV.) 

Dissolved  in  the  fat  of  the  egg  yolk  is  a  yellow  coloring  matter 
to  which  the  name  lutein  has  been  given. 

The  proteins  of  egg  are  also  of  much  interest,  and  those  of  the 
yolk  and  of  the  white  are  quite  different  in  their  properties.  The 
fact  that  egg  white  contains  so  little  of  any  other  substances 
than  protein  and  water  makes  it  easy  to  observe  the  behavior 
of  the  proteins.     Egg  white  is  therefore  largely  used  as  a  material 


EGGS 


135 


with  which  to  demonstrate  the  properties  of  proteins  —  partic- 
ularly of  the  albumins,  since  ovalbumin  is  the  chief  protein  of 
the  egg  white.  According  to  Osborne  and  Campbell  ^  egg  white 
also  contains  small  quantities  of  three  other  proteins  called 
conalbumin,  ovomucin,  and  ovomucoid.  The  chemical  con- 
stitution of  these  minor  proteins  has  not  been  studied.  Ovalbu- 
min has  been  purified  in  quantity  by  Osborne,  Jones,  and  Leaven- 
worth, and  studied  with  reference  to  the  amino  acids  yielded 
on  hydrolysis ;  the  results  together,  with  those  for  ovovitellin, 
are  shown  below. 

Ovovitellin  is  the  chief  protein  of  the  egg  yolk.  It  is  believed 
to  exist  largely  in  chemical  combination  with  lecithin.^  When 
freed  from  lecithin,  it  has  nearly  the  composition  of  casein,  as 
shown  by  the  following  analyses : 


Casein 
Ovovitellin 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Sulphur 

Per  Cent 

53-13 
51-56 

Per  Cent 
7.06 
7.12 

Per  Cent 

15-78 
16.23 

Per  Cent 
22.37 
23.24 

Per  Cent 
0.80 
1.03 

Phos- 
phorus 

Per  Cent 
0.86 
0.82 


Casein  and  ovovitellin  are  regarded  as  the  two  typical  phos- 
phoproteins. 

The  percentages  of  the  various  amino  acids  obtained  on  hydrol- 
ysis of  ovalbumin  and  ovovitellin,  by  Osborne  and  his  associates, 
were  as  follows  (Table  9). 

A  comparison  with  the  corresponding  data  given  in  Chapter 
III  (Table  4)  shows  that  ovovitellin  resembles  casein  in  the 
amino  acid  radicles  which  it  contains  as  well  as  in  its  elementary 
composition. 


'  See  references  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

'  Those  who  desire  a  fuller  account  of  the  chemistry  of  the  egg  protein  should 
consult  the  original  papers  of  Osborne  and  Campbell.  (See  references  at  end  of 
chapter.) 


136 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  9.    Percentages  of  Amino  Acids  from  Egg  Proteins 


Ovalbumin 


OVOVITELUN 


Glycin>   .     .     , 
Alanin     .     .     . 
Valin.     .     .     . 
Leucin     . 
Prolin 

Phenylalanin 
Aspartic  acid 
Glutamic  acid^ 
Serin  .     .     .     , 
Tyrosin   .     .     , 
Cystin     . 
Histidin  .     .     . 
Arginin    .     .     , 
Lysin      .     .     , 
Tryptophan 
Ammonia 


0.00 
2.22 
2.50 
10.71 
3-56 
5 -07 
2.20 
9.10 

? 
1.77 

? 

1.71 

4.91 

3-76 

present 

1-34 


0.00 

0-75 
1.87 
9.87 
4.18 

2.54 
2.13 

12.9s 

? 

3-37 
? 

1.90 
7.46 
4.81 
present 
1.25 


Table  10.    Comparison  of  White  and  Yolk  of  Egg  ' 


Constituent 


Water  . 
Protein  . 
Fat  .  . 
Ash  .  . 
Calcium  (ca! 


c.  as  CaO) 


Magnesium  (calc.  as  MgO) 
Potassium  (calc.  as  K2O) 
Sodium  (calc.  as  Na20) 
Phosphorus  (calc.  as  P2O5) 
Chlorine  (calc.  as  CI) 
Sulphur  (calc.  as  S)  . 
Iron  (calc.  as  Fe)      .     , 
Weight  per  average  egg 
Weight  per  average  egg 
Fuel  value  per  average  egg 


Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Per  cent 
Grams 
Ounces 
Calories 


White 


86.2 
12.3 

0.2 

0.6 

o.ois 

0.015 

0.19 

0.21 

0.03 

0.15 

0.196 

o.oooi 

33- 
1.2 

17- 


Yolk 


49-5 

15-7 

I.I 

0.2 

0.02 

0.13 

o.i 

i.o 

o.i 

0.157 

0.0085 

17.     > 
0.6 
60. 


1  Also  called  glycocoll.  2  Also  called  glutaminic  acid. 

'  The  occasional  small  discrepancies  between  the  data  for  the  entire  egg  and  the 
sum  of  the  data  for  white  and  yolk  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  two  sets  of  analyses  did 
not  cover,  exactly  the  same  samples. 


EGGS 


137 


The  ash  constituents  of  the  egg  are,  like  the  proteins,  evidently 
well  adapted  to  serve  as  material  for  the  formation  of  body  tissue. 
This  may  be  inferred  from  the  function  of  eggs  in  nature  and 
from  the  success  attending  the  use  of  eggs  in  diets  designed 
especially  for  tissue  building,  and  has  also  been  demonstrated 
experimentally  in  laboratory  feeding  experiments.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  accompanying  tables  that  the  egg  is  rich  in  all 
those  elements  which  enter  largely  into  the  construction  of 
muscle,  bone,  and  blood;  also  that  these  are  very  unequally 
distributed  between  the  white  and  the  yolk. 

Table  ii.    Nutrients  in  Eggs  as  Purchased  and  Edible  Portion 


Constituent 


Entire  Egg  as   Entire  Edible 
Purchased  Portion 


Shell        Per  cent 

Water Per  cent 

Protein Per  cent 

Fat Per  cent 

Ash Per  cent 

Calcium  (calc.  as  CaO)       ....  Per  cent 

Magnesium  (calc.  as  MgO)    .     .     .  Per  cent 

Potassium  (calc.  as  K2O)        .     .     .  Per  cent 

Sodium  (calc.  as  Na20)      ....  Per  cent 

Phosphorus  (calc.  as  P2O5)      .     .     .  Per  cent 

Chlorine  (calc.  as  CI) Per  cent 

Sulphur  (calc.  as  S) Per  cent 

Iron  (calc.  as  Fe) Per  cent 

Weight  of  1 00-crlorie  portion      .     .  Grams 

Weight  of  loo-calorie  portion      .     .  Ounces 

Fuel  value  pe^  pound Calories 

Weight  per  average  egg      ....  Grams 

Weight  per  average  egg      ....  Ounces 

Fuel  value  per  average  egg     .     .     .  Calories 


II. 2 

65.5 

73-7 

II.9 

134 

9-3 

lo.s 

0.9 

I.O 

0.083 

0.093 

0.013 

o.ois 

0.148 

0.16s 

0.18 

0.2 

0.33 

0.37 

0.09 

O.IO 

0.17 

0.19 

0.0027 

0.003 

76. 

68. 

2.7 

2.4 

596. 

672. 

S6. 

50. 

2. 

1.8 

74- 

74- 

The  yolk  is  very  much  richer  than  the  white  in  the  calcium, 
phosphorus,  and  iron  compounds  which  (for  reasons  explained 
in  Chapter  I)  are  especially  significant  in  human  nutrition. 


138 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


The  phosphorus  of  the  egg,  and  especially  of  the  yolk,  is  pres- 
ent chiefly  as  phosphoproteins  and  phosphorized  fats  {"  phos- 
phatids,"  "  phospholipines  ")  in  which  form  it  is  believed  to 
be  of  greater  food  value,  at  least  for  the  growing  organism,  than 
in  the  form  of  simple  phosphates.  (See  Chemistry  of  Food 
and  Nutrition,  Chapter  X.) 

The  iron  of  the  egg  yolk  is  also  present  in  organic  combination, 
chiefly  if  not  entirely  as  a  constituent  of  protein.  Bunge 
separated  from  egg  yolk  a  protein  substance  having  the  com- 
position : 

Per  cent 
Carbon     . 


Hydrogen 
Nitrogen  . 
Sulphur  . 
Phosphorus 
Iron  .  . 
Oxygen     . 


42.11 
6.08 

14-73 
o-SS 
S19 
0.29 

31-05 


This  appeared  to  be  the  substance  which  during  incubation 
is  changed  into  haemoglobin  and  for  this  reason  Bunge  named  it 
luBtnatogen.  This  is  believed  to  be  typical  of  the  iron-protein 
compounds  which,  in  a  well-balanced  diet,  furnish  all  the  iron 
needed  for  normal  nutrition,  and  which  apparently  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  replaced  by  the  iron  of  medicines  and  mineral 
waters.  The  function  of  these  latter  forms  of  iron  seems  to  be 
that  of  a  drug  to  stimulate  the  blood-making  organs  in  the  body, 
while  the  iron-protein  compounds  of  the  food  furnish  the  material 
from  which  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood  is  actually  made.  The 
richness  of  the  egg  yolk  in  this  food-iron  should  therefore  be 
recognized  as  adding  much  to  the  food  value  of  the  egg. 

The  calcium  compounds  of  the  egg  have  been  less  studied 
than  the  iron  and  phosphorus  compounds,  perhaps  because  the 
utilization  of  calcium  in  the  body  seems  to  be  less  dependent 
upon  the  form  in  which  it  exists  in  the  food  than  in  the  case  of 
iron  or  phosphorus.    It  is  certain  that  the  calcium  of  the  egg 


EGGS  139 

is  well  utilized  and  the  richness  of  egg-yolk  in  calcium  con- 
stitutes another  important  factor  in  the  resemblance  between 
eggs  and  milk  as  food. 

The  sulphur  content  of  eggs  is  high  —  higher  even  than  would 
be  anticipated  from  the  protein  content,  since  the  chief  protein 
of  the  white  of  egg  (ovalbumin)  is  particularly  rich  in  sulphur. 
This  abundance  of  sulphur  probably  has  its  function  as  a  source 
of  supply  for  the  sulphur-rich  substances  of  the  skin,  claws,  and 
feathers  of  the  chick.  From  the  standpoint  of  human  nutrition, 
such  a  high  sulphur  content  is  not  altogether  an  advantage, 
since  it  results  in  a  considerable  preponderance  of  the  acid- 
forming  elements  (see  Chapter  I)  over  the  base-forming  elements 
of  the  egg.  This  makes  the  egg  an  "  acid-forming  "  food.  In 
this  respect  the  egg  is  similar  to  meat  and  unsimilar  to  milk. 
In  other  respects,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  milk  contains 
about  5  per  cent  of  carbohydrate  and  eggs  almost  none,^  there 
is  an  essential  similarity  between  milk  and  eggs  in  those  features 
of  their  chemical  nature  which  are  most  directly  connected  with 
their  food  value. 

Nutritive  Value  and  Place  in  the  Diet 

That  the  egg  is  a  food  of  high  nutritive  value  will  have  been 
inferred  from  the  above  discussion  of  its  chemical  composition, 
and  the  nature  of  the  nutrients  which  it  contains. 

The  digestibility  of  eggs  has  been  studied  experimentally  but 
not  in  such  detail  as  with  some  other  articles  of  food.  The 
results  indicate  that  egg-protein  is  digested  and  absorbed  to 
practically  the  same  extent  as  milk  or  meat  protein,  about  97-98 
per  cent ;  and  that  the  fat  of  egg  is  digested  about  as  thoroughly 
as  milk  fat  and  rather  more  thoroughly  than  meat  fat.  It  is 
probable  that  eggs  "  soft  cooked  "  at  a  temperatur6  below  that 
of  boiling  water  are  the  most  readily  and  rapidly  digested,  but 

*  It  is  estimated  that  hens'  eggs  contain  0.25  to  0.5  per  cent  of  glycogen,  which, 
however,  is  not  shown  in  the  usual  analyses. 


I40  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

the  ultimate  thoroughness  of  digestion  does  not  seem  to  be  greatly 
influenced  by  the  method  of  cooking.  Thorough  mastication 
is  naturally  most  important  in  the  case  of  eggs  which  have  been 
"  hard  boiled  "  or  cooked  at  a  higher  temperature. 

Nutritive  value.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  nutrients 
of  the  egg  when  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract  are  of  ex- 
ceptional value  in  the  nutrition  of  the  body  tissues.  The  rich- 
ness of  eggs  in  protein  and  fat  and  in  compounds  of  phosphorus, 
iron,  and  calcium,  all  in  forms  especially  adapted  for  conversion 
into  body  tissue,  make  the  food  value  much  greater  than  a  com- 
parison based  simply  on  amounts  of  protein  and  energy  would 
indicate. 

Eggs  are  more  nearly  interchangeable  with  milk  in  nutritive 
value  than  is  any  other  food,  and  they  are  richer  than  milk  in 
iron.  On  account  of  this  richness  in  iron  (as  well  as  the  nature 
of  the  proteins  and  fats),  eggs  are  among  the  first  foods  to  be 
added  to  the  milk  diet  of  the  young  child,  and  if  circumstances 
should  arise  in  which  no  form  of  milk  enters  into  the  child's 
diet,  the  egg  will  come  nearer  furnishing  a  satisfactory  substitute 
than  will  any  other  food.  Normally,  however,  eggs  should 
only  supplement  the  milk  of  children's  dietaries  and  should  not 
be  allowed  to  displace  the  milk  to  any  appreciable  extent.  For 
the  same  reasons  that  it  is  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  growing 
organism,  the  egg  is  also  a  very  valuable  food  for  adults  who 
need  to  be  "  built  up  "  ;  hence  eggs  are  usually  prominent  in  well- 
arranged  dietaries  for  undernourished  anemic  people  and  espe- 
cially for  tuberculosis  patients. 

In  addition  to  their  well-known  high  nutritive  value,  eggs  are 
popular  for  other  reasons.  They  are  easily  cooked  in  a  variety 
of  ways  and  by  their  admixture  it  becomes  possible  to  make  many 
modifications  in  the  texture,  flavor,  and  appearance  of  other 
food  materials.  Doubtless  it  is  largely  because  the  egg  facili- 
tates so  many  things  in  cookery  which  would  otherwise  be  diffi- 
cult or  impracticable,  that  the  demand  for  eggs  keeps  the  price 


EGGS  141 

almost  always  higher  than  their  food  value,  for  general  use, 
would  seem  to  warrant.  We  have  seen,  however,  that  the  real 
food  value  of  eggs  is  much  greater  than  a  mere  statement  of  the 
protein  and  fat  content  and  energy  value  would  indicate.  When 
all  the  factors  of  food  value  are  taken  into  account,  a  dozen  eggs 
may  fairly  be  considered  worth  as  much  in  the  dietary  as  two 
pounds  at  least  of  meat,  so  that,  except  in  times  of  special 
scarcity,  eggs  are  apt  to  be  more  economical  than  meat  though 
not  so  economical  as  milk. 

Trade  Practices  in  the  Egg  Industry 

The  great  value  of  eggs  as  food,  the  importance  of  keeping 
them  in  the  best  possible  condition  until  consumed,  and  the 
desirability  of  preserving  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  eggs 
produced  in  time  of  abundance  in  order  that  undue  scarcity 
at  the  time  of  minimum  production  may  be  avoided,  make  the 
trade  practices  in  the  egg  industry  a  matter  of  large  public 
importance. 

For  the  individual  consumer  who  wishes  to  preserve  eggs 
when  cheap,  for  use  in  time  of  scarcity,  the  best  method  is 
probably  to  keep  the  eggs  immersed  in  a  solution  of  water  glass 
(sodium  silicate)  in  a  cool  place.  The  water  glass  is  usually 
purchased  in  the  form  of  a  concentrated  (sirupy)  solution  of  the 
sodium  silicate  which  is  diluted  ten  times  its  volume  by  addition 
of  pure  water.  According  to  Bartlett,  the  diluted  solution 
should  not  be  strongly  alkaline,  and  should  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  1.045,  in  which  case,  fresh  eggs  readily  sink  and 
remain  submerged.  The  silicate  seals  the  pores  of  the  eggshell 
and  so  prevents  the  entrance  of  organisms  and  greatly  retards 
the  passage  of  gases,  so  that  oxygen  is  practically  excluded.  If 
the  silicate  is  of  the  right  composition  and  the  eggs  are  kept  com- 
pletely submerged  in  a  cool  place,  the  eggs  should  remain  with- 
out apparent  change  in  weight,  composition,  or  flavor  for  many 


142  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

months,  provided  the  eggs  are  clean,  sound,  and  fresh  when 
placed  in  the  solution.  Unless  the  consumer  knows  the  origin 
of  the  eggs  and  is  sure  of  their  freshness  at  the  start,  the  attempt 
to  preserve  cheap  eggs  by  household  methods  is  apt  to  result  in 
disappointment. 

Whether  they  are  to  be  used  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  market, 
or  preserved  on  a  small  scale  in  the  household  or  on  a  large  scale 
in  cold-storage  warehouses,  it  is  in  any  case  highly  important 
that  eggs  be  promptly  and  properly  collected  and  handled  so 
as  to  reach  the  consumer  or  the  storage  warehouse  in  good 
condition. 

At  the  present  time  are  offered  to  the  consumer,  living  in 
a  large  city,  eggs  of  all  degrees  of  freshness,  from  those  which 
are  guaranteed  to  have  been  laid  within  24  hours  of  delivery 
to  those  which  have  been  weeks  in  the  hands  of  farmers  and 
country  merchants  and  perhaps  after  that  several  months  in 
cold  storage. 

Naturally  the  poultryman  who  makes  eggs  his  chief  crop  is 
likely  to  market  them  much  more  systematically  than  is  the 
general  farmer  who  produces  only  a  few  more  eggs  than  he  uses. 
If  a  local  egg  dealer  visits  the  farms  frequently,  he  may  be  able 
to  get  the  eggs  to  a  refrigerated  warehouse  while  still  fresh, 
and  if  subsequent  shipment  is  in  refrigerator  cars  and  storage 
always  at  low  temperatures,  the  eggs  may  travel  hundreds 
of  miles  and  remain  weeks  or  months  in  the  hands  of 
dealers  without  serious  deterioration.  At  present,  however, 
the  bulk  of  the  eggs  going  into  wholesale  trade  is  not  so  well 
handled. 

Pennington  and  Pierce  estimate  that  there  is  a  total  loss  of 
7.8  per  cent  of  the  eggs  marketed,  as  a  result  of  improper  han- 
dling, and  of  course  this  must  be  accompanied  by  a  great  decline 
in  value  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  eggs  not  totally  lost.  Irreg- 
ular gathering  of  eggs  on  the  farm  and  storage  at  too  high  a 
temperature  result  in  much  deterioration.     There  is  also  apt 


EGGS  143 

to  be  delay  and  exposure  to  too  high  a  temperature  in  the  ship- 
ment of  the  eggs  from  the  small  dealer  to  the  large  packer,  since 
eggs  in  "  less  than  car  lots  "  (technically  known  as  "  1.  c.  l.'s  ") 
are  apt  to  be  handled  as  ordinary  local  freight. 

When  the  eggs  reach  the  packer,  they  are  cooled  and  candled. 
On  the  basis  of  their  appearance  on  candling,  they  are  classified 
as  "  fresh,"  "  weak,"  "  spots,"  and  ''  rotten  "  (see  Fig.  8)  and 
sometimes  still  other  categories.  The  marketable  eggs  are 
graded  according  to  size,  cleanliness,  and  to  some  extent  fresh- 
ness. The  eggs  are  then  packed  in  cases  or  crates,  usually  hold- 
ing thirty  dozen  each,  and  shipped  to  a  commission  man  at  the 
market  center  from  whom  they  pass  to  the  wholesaler  or  jobber, 
and  finally  (perhaps  after  being  kept  in  a  cold-storage  warehouse) 
to  the  retailer. 

Some  of  the  methods  which  are  being  employed  for  the  im- 
provement of  conditions  in  the  general  egg  trade  are :  better  care 
of  eggs  on  the  farm  and  prompt  delivery  to  egg  dealers  who  will 
purchase  for  cash  and  base  the  price  upon  the  quality  of  the  eggs 
so  that  the  farmer  who  uses  good  methods  will  profit  accordingly ; 
early  cooling  and  consistent  maintenance  of  low  temperature 
somewhat  as  in  the  marketing  of  milk ;  reduction  or  elimina- 
tion of  middlemen,  even  to  the  extent  of  direct  contracts  between 
the  farmer  and  consumer  for  regular  shipments  either  in  dozens 
by  parcel  post  or  in  crates  by  express.  For  the  latter  purpose 
crates  holding  15  dozen  (half  the  usual  commercial  size)  are 
now  being  made. 

When  direct  contracts  between  producer  and  consumer  are 
not  practicable,  it  has  been  found  that  the  losses  and  deteriora- 
tion involved  in  the  old  methods  may  be  largely  eliminated  by 
making  use  of  the  facilities  of  the  dairy  industry  for  the  prompt 
marketing  of  the  farmers'  eggs.  Such  marketing  of  eggs 
"  through  the  creamery  "  has  been  described  by  Slocum  ^  as 
follows : 

1  Fanners'  Bulletin  445,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  8.  —  Apoearance  of  different    grades  of    eggs    before    the  candle.    A,  fresh 
egg ;  B,  i^hrunken  (old)  egg  ;  C,  "  spot  "  egg  (fungous  growth) ;  D,  rotten  egg. 


EGGS  145 

How  Eggs  are  Marketed  through  a  Minnesota  Creamery 

The  marketing  of  eggs  in  this  particular  instance  is  accompUshed  through 
a  creamery  in  the  northern  part  of  Minnesota.  Because  of  the  fact  that 
farmers  must  take  their  milk  or  cream  to  the  creamery  at  frequent  and 
regular  intervals,  it  is  an  agency  especially  well  suited  to  obtaining  the  egg 
m  a  fresh  condition  from  the  farmer.  As  it  seems  that  there  must  be  other 
creameries  so  situated  that  they  could  readily  put  their  eggs  directly  in  the 
hands  of  a  retailer  in  a  fair-sized  city  with  only  a  short  shipment,  it  seems 
well  to  describe  in  detail  the  methods  used  in  this  case.  The  volume  of  eggs 
handled  in  this  way  would,  of  course,  probably  never  become  so  great  as  to 
make  them  a  factor  in  the  mass  of  eggs  now  handled  commercially. 

As  stated  before,  the  eggs  are  brought  by  the  farmer  directly  to  the  cream- 
ery when  bringing  his  milk.  While  this  particular  creamery  is  privately 
owned,  it  is  essentially  cooperative,  in  that  its  owner  and  manager  is  a  far- 
sighted  business  man  with  other  interests  in  the  village,  and  he  sees  that  the 
increased  agricultural  prosperity  of  the  community  will  eventually  be  to  his 
advantage.  In  consequence  he  is  content  to  take  a  small  profit  for  himself 
and  to  pay  the  farmers  as  liberally  as  possible  for  both  their  cream  and  eggs. 
Any  patron  of  the  creamery  of  any  other  person  who  will  sign  a  required 
agreement  may  market  his  eggs  in  this  way.  At  present  about  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  farmers  are  taking  advantage  of  this  method  of  disposing  of 
their  eggs.  These  egg  patrons  are  scattered  over  quite  a  wide  territory, 
one  man  finding  it  to  his  advantage  to  drive  in  14  miles  with  his  eggs. 

The  agreement  reads  as  follows : 

For  the  privilege  of  selling  eggs  to  the  creamery  company  and  getting  a 
market  established  for  guaranteed  fresh  eggs,  I,  the  undersigned,  hereby 
pledge  myself  to  comply  in  every  way  with  the  following  rules : 

I  agree  to  deliver  eggs  at  the  creamery  that  will  not  be  to  exceed  8  days  old 
and  to  be  picked  in  (gathered)  twice  every  day. 

Eggs  to  be  of  uniform  size  (no  under  size  or  over  size  eggs). 

Eggs  to  be  clean  and  to  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  cellar. 

Brown  eggs  to  be  put  in  one  carton  and  white  in  another  and  so  marked. 

Each  egg  to  be  stamped  on  the  side  and  carton  to  be  stamped  on  the 
top. 

I  agree  not  to  sell  any  eggs  that  I  have  marked  with  the  creamery  com- 
pany's trade-mark  to  anyone  else  but  the  creamery  company,  and  to  return 
stamps  and  other  supplies  that  have  been  furnished,  in  case  I  should  decide 
to  discontinue  to  sell  eggs  to  the  creamery  company. 

It  is  readily  discernible  from  the  provisions  of  this  agreement  that  the 
aim  is  to  get  a  grade  of  uniform,  clean,  dependable  eggs,  of  reasonable  fresh- 
X. 


146  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ness.  It  might  seem  that  requiring  delivery  once  in  eight  days  would  not  be 
frequent  enough,  but  the  nights  in  Minnesota  even  in  summer  are  said  to  be 
usually  cool,  and  this  condition,  together  with  the  gathering  twice  a  day  and 
the  storage  in  dry,  cool  cellars,  must  account  for  the  fact  that  no  complaints 
have  been  received  on  the  score  of  staleness. 

To  every  person  signing  the  agreement  quoted  above  a  small  rubber 
stamp  is  given  for  use  in  stamping  the  eggs  and  the  container.  This  stamp 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  system  of  marketing.  It  contains  the  name 
of  the  creamery,  the  creamery  brand,  and  a  serial  number  for  each  producer. 
By  means  of  the  stamp  which  thus  appears  on  each  egg  and  on  each  package 
it  is  possible  to  trace  the  product  back  to  the  individual  producer,  and  in 
consequence  to  place  the  blame  for  any  carelessness  or  poor  quality  where 
it  belongs.  A  repetition  of  any  offense  of  this  nature  may  be  sufficient 
ground  for  refusing  to  handle  the  eggs  of  that  particular  producer. 

When  the  creamery  patron  signs  the  agreement,  and  at  such  times  there- 
after as  may  be  necessary,  he  is  furnished  with  a  supply  of  cartons  or  con- 
tainers in  addition  to  the  rubber  stamp.  These  cartons  are  the  ordinary 
one-dozen  size  pasteboard  egg  boxes  which  are  so  shaped  that  they  may  be 
packed  in  a  regular  30-dozen  egg  case. 

The  farmer  takes  these  cartons  home,  and  as  the  eggs  are  gathered  each 
day,  the  clean,  good-sized  eggs  are  stamped  and  placed  in  them.  When  a 
carton  is  filled  it  is  stamped  on  its  upper  side  just  the  same  as  the  eggs. 

When  the  farmer  comes  in  to  the  creamery  with  his  milk  or  cream  he  brings 
along  as  many  cartons  or  dozens  of  eggs  as  he  has.  The  man  in  charge  of 
the  creamery  takes  these  eggs,  examines  the  packages,  and  gives  the  farmer 
a  check  for  the  eggs  delivered  that  day.  The  cartons  are  then  packed  in 
substantial  returnable  30-dozen  egg  cases  and  shipped  to  market  by  express. 
The  shipping  charges  are  paid  by  the  consignee.  The  labor  and  cost  of 
handling  the  eggs  at  the  creamery  are  thus  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The 
eggs  are  never  candled,  reliance  being  placed  on  the  farmer  to  bring  in  good 
eggs.  The  cost  of  handling  the  eggs,  including  the  cost  of  the  carton,  which 
is  about  one-half  cent,  is  estimated  to  be  i  cent  a  dozen.  The  farmer  in  turn 
feels  bound  to  be  particular,  knowing  that  any  carelessness  can  be  traced 
back  to  him  and  realizing  that  he  thus  jeopardizes  his  chances  of  continuing 
to  dispose  of  his  eggs  in  this  manner. 

The  advantage  of  this  system  of  marketing,  to  the  farmers  or  producers^ 
has  come  about  in  two  ways :  First,  it  has  increased  the  price  paid  to  them  by 
compelling  an  improvement  in  quality,  by  selling  more  directly  to  the  con- 
sumer, and  by  establishing  a  reputation  for  the  eggs  sold  under  the  creamery 
brand.  Second,  it  has  brought  about  the  realization  that  poultry  raising  by 
the  general  farmer  is  profitable,  that  the  income  from  this  source  is  consider- 


EGGS  147 

able,  and  that  it  is  capable  of  increase  by  keeping  better  fowls  and  giving 
them  better  care. 

In  this  particular  Minnesota  village  during  the  year  1907,  which  was  just 
previous  to  marketing  the  eggs  by  the  new  method,  the  eggs  received  by 
the  storekeepers  hardly  more  than  supplied  the  local  demand.  In  fact, 
during  the  whole  of  that  year  only  1 5  cases,  or  450  dozen  eggs,  were  shipped 
out  of  the  village.  During  the  year  1909  nearly  $4,000  was  paid  out  by  the 
creamery  for  eggs,  all  of  which  were  shipped  away.  The  impetus  which  has 
been  given  the  poultry  business  during  the  short  time  this  method  of  market- 
ing has  been  practiced  may  be  judged  from  the  statement  of  the  proprietor 
of  the  creamery  that  from  present  indications  he  expected  the  egg  business 
to  double  or  treble  during  the  year  1910. 

The  publication  of  this  account  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  19 10  gave  an  impetus  to  this  method  of 
marketing  eggs  and  it  is  said  to  be  extending  rapidly. 

Special  attention  to  the  handling  of  eggs  is  not  a  new  project. 
In  Denmark  a  farmers'  cooperative  egg  export  association  was 
organized  in  1895  to  better  the  market  for  Danish  eggs  by 
guaranteeing  that  eggs  delivered  under  the  association's  trade- 
mark are  strictly  fresh  and  clean.  This  association  handled 
in  1909  over  9,000,000  pounds  of  eggs.  In  Canada  both  the 
Dominion  government  and  the  Quebec  government  have  taken 
up  the  matter  and  are  doing  what  they  can  to  forward  similar 
cooperative  work.  In  Australia  one  state  has  a  system  by 
which  twenty-one  associations  of  farmers  each  maintain  a 
center  at  which  a  Secretary  receives,  tests,  and  grades  the  eggs, 
pays  cash  for  them  at  the  current  market  rate,  and  sends  them 
to  the  government  cold  stores,  receiving  one  cent  per  dozen  eggs 
for  his  services.  The  government  does  the  marketing  and  at 
the  end  of  each  quarter  any  profits  are  divided  among  those 
who  supply  the  eggs  (Powell).  For  several  years  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  been  working  through 
both  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
for  the  improvement  of  the  egg  trade  and  now  through  the  newly 
established  Office  of  Markets,  will  doubtless  be  able  to  con- 


148  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

tribute  still  more  toward  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  this 
industry. 

Cold  Storage  and  its  Regulation 

The  cold  storage  industry  as  now  understood  is  a  relatively 
recent  development.  While  statistics  of  the  industry  in  its 
earlier  stages  are  not  available,  it  is  generally  accepted  that 
only  since  about  1893  have  the  quantities  of  food  materials 
placed  in  cold  storage  been  large  enough  to  have  an  appreciable 
effect  upon  market  conditions. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  statements  regarding  the 
quantity  of  food  "  put  in  cold  storage  "  do  not  include  food 
kept  cold  while  in  preparation  or  transportation  or  while  in  the 
hands  of  the  retailer,  but  refer,  as  a  rule,  specifically  to  the  busi- 
ness conducted  by  cold  storage  warehousemen  who  rent  space 
for  the  storage  of  food,  which  the  owners  wish  to  withhold  from 
the  market  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
owner's  chief  object  in  thus  withholding  his  goods  from  the  mar- 
ket is  to  await  an  increase  of  price;  it  should  be  equally 
plain  that  the  owner  cannot  wish  to  hold  the  food  so  long  as  to 
have  it  lose  value  through  deterioration.  Hence  the  influence 
of  cold  storage  in  the  food  industry  is  more  largely  economic 
than  hygienic,  though  occasionally  there  may  be  cases  in  which 
food  becomes  unwholesome  in  cold  storage,  either  through  being 
stored  too  long,  or  under  improper  conditions,  or  because  the 
food  was  not  suitable  for  storage  in  the  first  place. 

Of  the  total  egg  production  of  the  United  States  it  is  estimated 
that  about  one  seventh  (13.5  to  15  per  cent)  are  placed  in  cold 
storage  in  the  sense  explained  above,  i.e.  are  sent  to  storage 
warehouses  to  await  higher  prices  instead  of  being  sent  directly 
to  the  retail  trade.  Referring  to  the  estimates  of  egg  production 
quoted  earlier  in  this  chapter,  it  will  be  seen  how  great  is  the 
quantity  represented  by  one  seventh  of  this  total.  The  cold 
storage  warehouses  are  apt  to  be  located  in  close  proximity  to 


EGGS  149 

some  large  market.  On  the  occasion  of  an  official  investigation 
by  a  committee  of  the  State  Legislature  it  was  reported  that 
hundreds  of  millions  of  eggs  were  found  in  the  cold-storage  ware- 
houses of  Hudson  County,  New  Jersey,  awaiting  a  rise  of  price 
in  New  York  City. 

That  egg  production  is  much  larger  and  prices  much  lower  in 
spring  and  early  summer  than  in  autumn  and  winter  is  a  well- 


I  MAR  I  *Pa  I    «fUY   i  JUNE  1  JUtV  I    AUG.  1  •Ef*T.  I    OCT.  I   NOV.  I    DEC.   I.  JAW;    \  FS,B. 


Fig.  9.  —  Relative  quantities  of  eggs  put  in  cold  storage  each  month  (by  a  Chicago 
firm).  Reproduced  by  permission  from  Taylor's  Prices  of  Farm  Products 
(Bulletin  209  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station). 

recognized  condition  which  recurs  regularly  year  after  year. 
The  supply  of  eggs  received  by  a  large  city  is  more  nearly  in 
proportion  to  the  surplus  production  than  to  the  actual  produc- 
tion of  the  large  areas  from  which  the  supply  comes. 

While  the  price  of  storage  eggs  is  always  below  that  of  fresh 
eggs,  it  usually  reaches  a  point  sufficiently  above  the  prices 
ruling  in  spring  to  yield  a  profit  to  the  owner  after  paying  the 
warehouse  charges  and  insurance,  and  allowing  for  interest  on 
the  money  value  of  the  eggs.    It  is  of  course  in  anticipation  of 


150  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

this  profit  that  eggs  are  placed  in  storage  at  the  time  of  greatest 
abundance  in  the  spring  and  early  summer. 

According  to  statistics  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  four  fifths  (79.4  per  cent)  of  all  the  eggs  placed  in 
cold  storage  are  stored  during  April,  May,  and  June.  In  the 
Chicago  market,  where  large  quantities  of  eggs  are  received 
from  the  Southwest  as  well  as  from  the  surrounding  country, 
storage  begins  in  March  and  (normally)  nearly  all  the  eggs  stored 
are  placed  in  storage  during  a  period  of  four  months.  The 
relative  quantities  of  eggs  put  into  storage  each  month  for  a  year 
by  one  Chicago  firm  are  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

Since  midsummer  eggs  do  not  keep  well,  few  eggs  are  placed 
in  storage  in  July  and  August  even  though  the  price  may  con- 
tinue low. 

Of  the  eggs  placed  in  storage  it  appears  from  the  statistics 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  that  only  22.6 
per  cent  are  taken  out  within  4  months  of  receipt,  but  that  75.8 
per  cent  are  taken  out  within  7  months,  and  99.9  per  cent 
within  10  months.  Thus  it  appears  that  more  than  three 
fourths  of  all  the  eggs  which  are  stored  remain  in  storage  over 
4  months,  but  practically  none  remain  in  storage  longer  than 
10  months.  The  average  length  of  storage  of  eggs  was  found 
to  be  5.9  months.  The  total  cost  of  storage  was  estimated  at 
0.57  cent  per  dozen  per  month  or  3.5  cents  per  dozen  for  the 
average  length  of  storage.  In  general  the  stored  eggs  must 
sell,  as  Professor  Taylor  has  pointed  out,  at  a  sufiicient 
advance  on  their  original  price  to  pay  all  the  costs  of  storage, 
and  in  addition  "  enough  profit  to  induce  a  business  man  to  give 
his  attention  to  this  business  instead  of  doing  something  else." 

In  the  case  of  eggs  as  of  other  perishable  foods  the  introduction 
of  cold  storage  facilities  has  changed  considerably  the  relative 
monthly  consumption  and  made  it  more  uniform  throughout 
the  year.  Cold  storage  also  tends  toward  greater  uniformity 
of  prices  throughout  the  year,  keeping  up  prices  in  the  season 


EGGS  151 

of  maximum  production,  and  diminishing  somewhat  the  in- 
crease of  price  which  occurs  at  the  season  of  natural  scarcity. 
The  cold  storage  industry  tends  to  raise  the  average  or  annual 
price  level  both  because  the  costs  of  storage  must  in  the  long 
run  be  paid  by  the  consumers  and,  because  as  the  result  of  the 
steadying  effect  of  cold  storage  upon  prices  a  larger  proportion 
of  consumers  now  use  eggs  throughout  the  year,  so  that  there 
is  a  much  larger  volume  of  business  during  the  season  of  high 
prices.  So  far  as  this  last  factor  is  concerned  it  may  fairly  be 
considered  that  the  standard  of  living  is  raised  with  the  cost. 

The  conclusion  drawn  from  the  statistical  investigation  con- 
ducted by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (1909- 
191 1)  was  that  there  is  no  just  ground  for  complaint  against 
the  men  who  keep  foods  in  cold  storage  except  in  so  far  as  they 
sometimes  speculate.  Since  the  power  to  withhold  goods  from 
the  market  obviously  constitutes  a  temptation  to  try  to  raise 
prices  by  creating  an  artificial  scarcity  (or  exaggerating  a 
scarcity  which  already  exists),  it  was  recommended  that  storage 
warehouses  be  required  to  make  monthly  reports  to  the  govern- 
ment and  that  official  estimates  of  the  quantities  of  foods  in 
storage  be  made  public  each  month  somewhat  as  the  govern- 
ment crop  reports  now  are.  As  yet  there  has  been  no  action 
upon  this  recommendation,  nor  does  the  Federal  government 
set  any  time  limit  upon  cold  storage.  Several  of  the  states 
however  have  laws  which  set  such  limits.  Thus  the  laws  passed 
by  New  York  and  New  Jersey  in  191 1  limit  the  time  of  storage 
to  ten  months  except  in  some  particular  instances. 

Effect  of  cold  storage  upon  eggs.  Meats  and  poultry  when 
stored  are  often  kept  hard  frozen,  but  this  of  course  is  not 
practicable  for  eggs.  Eggs  are  best  stored  at  temperatures  just 
above  their  freezing  point,  which  of  course  is  below  that  of 
water.  From  29°  to  32°  F.  is  the  usual  temperature  for  egg 
storage.  At  such  temperatures  the  eggs,  if  kept  in  moist  air, 
become  musty  or  moldy.    To  prevent  this,  the  air  in  well- 


152  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

regulated  storage  rooms  is  kept  moderately  dry,  as  the  result 
of  which  moisture  evaporates  through  the  shell  and  the  contents 
of  the  egg  shrink,  the  size  of  the  air  chamber  becoming  larger. 
This  condition  is  detected  by  candling  as  already  explained. 
Other  results  of  long  storage  are  an  increased  tendency  of  the 
egg  albumen  to  adhere  to  the  shell  membrane,  and  sometimes 
a  slight  crystallization  of  certain  of  the  components  of  the  egg. 
One  of  the  earliest  prosecutions  by  the  government  after  the 
Food  and  Drugs  Act  became  effective  in  1907  was  against  a 
dealer  in  Washington,  D.  C,  for  selUng  eggs  "  misbranded  in 
that  they  were  sold  as  strictly  fresh  when  not  so,"  the  evidence 
against  the  eggs  being  "  that  the  albumen  clung  to  the  shell 
membrane,  that  the  air  chamber  was  greatly  enlarged,  and  that 
minute  rosette  crystals  were  found  in  the  albumen  and  larger 
rosette  crystals  in  the  yolk." 

During  storage  the  white  of  egg  loses  moisture  not  only  by 
evaporation  through  the  shell,  but  also  by  an  osmotic  transfer 
of  water  from  the  white  to  the  yolk.  Greenlee  ^  has  studied 
this  point  quantitatively  and  proposed  a  formula  by  means  of 
which  the  length  of  time  an  egg  had  been  in  storage  could  be 
judged  from  the  water  content  of  the  white  if  the  temperature 
and  humidity  of  the  storage  room  were  known. 

As  a  result  of  the  transfer  of  water  from  the  white  to  the  yolk 
of  the  egg,  the  latter  expands  somewhat  and  the  membrane 
which  separates  the  yolk  from  the  white  is  stretched  and 
weakened  and  may  break  and  permit  a  spreading  of  the  yolk 
into  the  white,  especially  if  the  egg  is  carelessly  handled. 

These  results  of  storage  may  interfere  seriously  with  the  ap- 
pearance and  behavior  of  the  eggs  when  boiled  or  poached, 
and  eggs  showing  these  properties  are  rated  considerably  below 
fresh  eggs  in  market  value,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  none 
of  these  effects  is  indicative  of  decomposition  or  unwholesome- 
ness  or  indeed  of  anything  but  purely  physical  changes. 

*  Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  34,  page  539. 


EGGS  153 

That  slight  chemical  changes  may  occur  during  the  time  that 
eggs  are  ordinarily  held  in  storage  seems  probable  in  view  of  the 
somewhat  different  flavor  and  strength  of  white  in  fresh  and 
storage  eggs.  Normally  the  change  in  flavor  is  no  different  from 
that  which  takes  place  in  a  much  shorter  time  when  the  eggs 
are  kept  under  household  conditions.  Just  why  the  white  of 
the  storage  egg  shows  somewhat  less  strength  than  that  of  the 
fresh  egg  is  not  entirely  clear,  but  may  be  due  to  slight  self- 
digestion  ("  autolysis  ")  such  as  occurs  in  animal  organs  and 
tissues  generally  when  removed  from  the  body  and  protected 
from  the  action  of  microorganisms. 

The  slight  changes  in  flavor  and  in  behavior  on  cooking  and 
the  fact  that  storage  eggs  are  sometimes  fraudulently  sold  as 
fresh  in  the  retail  trade  are  sufficient  to  explain  the  prejudice 
against  cold  storage  eggs  which  exists  among  many  if  not  most 
consumers.  But  these  properties  should  not  be  confused 
with  those  which  are  indicative  of  decomposition  and  unwhole- 
someness.  As  regards  wholesomeness,  there  is  no  presumption 
against  the  cold  storage  egg  as  such.  In  general,  storage  eggs 
may  be  regarded  as  less  desirable  than  those  which  are  in  reality 
"  strictly  fresh,"  but  superior  to  many  of  the  so-called  "  fresh  " 
eggs  which  have  not  had  the  benefit  of  refrigeration. 

Many  species  of  organisms,  both  bacteria  and  molds,  have 
been  found  in  decaying  eggs.  In  general  the  spoilage  which 
takes  place  rapidly  at  high  temperatures  is  apt  to  be  due  chiefly 
to  bacteria,  while  the  mustiness  which  develops  slowly  at  low 
temperatures  is  often  due  more  largely  to  molds.  An  initial 
infection  with  bacteria  may  occur  while  the  egg  is  still  within 
the  oviduct  of  the  hen ;  or  organisms  may  gain  entrance  after 
the  egg  is  laid,  especially  if  it  be  allowed  to  lie  in  an  unclean  nest. 
The  properties  of  the  white  and  yolk  with  reference  to  bacterial 
growth  are  summarized  by  Buchanan  as  follows :  ^  Egg  white 
has  been  shown  to  possess  distinct  antiseptic  properties.     Many 

^  Household  Bacteriology,  page  484. 


154  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

species  of  bacteria  are  quickly  destroyed  when  mixed  with  it. 
This  is  not  true  of  the  yolk,  for  this  is  a  favorable  growth  medium 
for  many  species  of  bacteria.  It  is  not  probable  that  this 
bactericidal  property  of  egg  white  persists  indefinitely,  but  it  is 
doubtless  responsible  for  the  fact  that  the  egg  keeps  as  well  as 
it  does. 

Certain  types  of  spoilage  are  due  to  developing  embryos  and 
are  therefore  avoided  in  the  case  of  infertile  eggs. 

Frozen  and  Dried  Eggs 

Freezing  and  drying  are  the  two  general  methods  of  preserving 
eggs  when  removed  from  their  shells.  Pennington  and  also 
Stiles  and  Bates,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
have  made  special  investigations  of  frozen  and  dried  eggs  and 
the  following  is  based  chiefly  on  their  findings.  Since  the  centers 
of  egg  production  and  egg  consumption  are  now  so  widely 
separated,  it  is  believed  that,  properly  conducted,  the  freezing 
and  drying  of  eggs  is  an  industry  which  is  economically  desirable, 
especially  so  long  as  the  prevalent  methods  of  handling  bring 
to  the  dealers  in  the  producing  sections  great  numbers  of  eggs 
which  are  wholesome  but  not  available  for  long  hauls.  An- 
other important  consideration  is  that  frozen  eggs  can  be 
stored  at  very  much  lower  temperatures  than  can  eggs  in  the 
shell. 

As  Pennington  points  out,  the  handling  of  eggs  which  have 
been  removed  from  their  shells  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the 
handling  of  milk,  and  like  the  milk  industry,  should  be  char- 
acterized by  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  throughout.  As 
in  the  case  of  milk,  the  sources  of  contamination  are  best  demon- 
strated by  bacteriological  methods  and  can  in  the  main  be 
eliminated  by  the  adoption  of  such  precautions  as  a  knowledge 
of  sanitation  would  suggest  —  cleanliness  of  surroundings  and 
workers,  frequent  cleansing  and  drying  of  the  fingers,  use  of 
appliances  and  containers  which  have  been  sterilized  by  means 


EGGS  155 

of  live  steam,  prompt  freezing  or  drying  of  the  egg  after  removal 
from  the  shell,  etc.  A  complicating  factor  in  this  industry  is 
that  eggs  do  not  come  directly  from  the  farm  to  the  breaking 
establishment  and  even  though  the  eggs  be  sorted  by  candling 
before  going  to  the  breakers,  some  of  the  eggs  which  have  passed 
the  candler  prove  to  be  distinctly  bad  when  broken.  In  legit- 
imate establishments,  such  an  egg  is  rejected  and  the  receptacle 
into  which  it  was  broken  as  well  as  the  fingers  of  the  breaker 
are  rinsed  before  being  used  again.  Mere  rinsing,  however,  is 
not  sufficient  to  prevent  the  contamination  of  the  next  egg,  since 
large  numbers  of  bacteria  from  the  bad  egg  remain  in  the  re- 
ceptacle even  though  it  looks  and  smells  clean.  Pennington  rec- 
ommends that  all  the  fittings  of  the  room  in  which  eggs  are 
broken  and  all  the  appliances  and  receptacles  used  be  of  metal 
or  other  non-porous  material  adapted  to  easy  and  thorough  clean- 
ing and  steam  sterilization.  Each  egg  should  be  cracked  on  a 
steel  blade  and  broken  into  a  smooth  clear  glass  cup.  When 
a  bad  egg  is  encountered,  the  blade  on  which,  and  the  cup  into 
which,  it  was  broken  are  at  once  replaced  and  sent  away  to  be 
thoroughly  washed  and  steam-sterilized.  It  is  further  recom- 
mended that  all  eggs  received  by  the  breaking  establishment  be 
first  chilled  below  40°  F.  for  24  hours,  then  candled  and  broken 
in  cooled  rooms  and  the  liquid  egg,  while  still  cold  (preferably 
below  45°  F,),  sent  in  its  final  container  to  a  quick  freezer. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  such  precautions  have  not 
always  been  observed  in  the  past.  Stiles  and  Bates  describe 
the  commercial  process  as  they  found  it  in  191 1  ih  Bulletin  158 
of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Methods  of  drying  eggs.  Eggs  which  have  been  removed  from 
the  shell  may,  instead  of  being  frozen,  be  dried  and  preserved 
in  solid  form.  According  to  Stiles  and  Bates,  the  drying  expels 
over  nine  tenths  of  the  water  originally  present  and  one  pound 
of  the  dry  product  represents  the  solids  of  from  36  to  40  average- 


156  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

sized  eggs.     They  describe  as  follows  four  general  methods 
found  in  commercial  use : 

Instantaneous  method.  In  many  respects  the  instantaneous  method  is 
highly  satisfactory  from  the  sanitary  point  of  view  because  of  the  quickness  of 
drying.  The  high  temperature  used  probably'destroys  or  retards  the  develop- 
ment of  the  less  resistant  organisms  present  in  the  liquid  material.  The 
liquid  eggs  are  sprayed  into  a  heated  chamber  at  a  temperature  of  about 
160°  F.,  where  they  are  immediately  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  which  is  carried 
on  by  currents  of  air  through  cotton  bags  or  other  filtering  devices,  on  which 
it  is  retained  and  finally  falls  down  into  bins.  The  powdered  product 
usually  contains  from  3  to  5  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  is  ready  to  be  packed  in 
suitable  containers  for  sale. 

Belt  method.  As  suggested  by  the  name,  the  belt  method  consists  in  dry- 
ing the  liquid  egg  on  an  endless  belt,  made  of  zinc  or  galvanized  iron  strips. 
The  belts  vary  in  length  according  to  the  size  of  the  rooms  and  amount  of 
output.  The  liquid  egg  may  be  held  in  vats  and  artificially  refrigerated 
with  circulating  brine,  or  the  feeding  device  of  the  drying  machine  may  be 
equipped  with  brine  pipes  to  keep  the  product  cold.  The  liquid  egg  is 
applied  to  the  revolving  belt  through  a  feeding  device  which  permits  a  thin 
film  to  spread  evenly  over  its  surface.  This  drying  belt  is  inclosed  within 
suitably  constructed  chambers  into  which  heated  filtered  air  is  introduced. 
The  temperature  of  the  inclosed  air  surrounding  the  egg  is  about  140°  F., 
and  the  time  of  drying  can  be  largely  governed  by  regulating  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  the  length  of  the  belt,  and  the  rate  of  its  revolution.  Each  film 
of  egg  applied  is  usually  dried  in  one  complete  revolution,  and  there  are  a 
large  number  of  such  films  wound  around  the  belt  before  separating  the 
product  from  the  drier.  This  is  done  by  adjusting  suitably-tipped  metal 
scrapers  in  contact  with  the  belt  so  as  to  remove  the  dried  product,  which 
then  falls  into  drawers  or  bins.  It  requires  from  one  and  one-half  to  two 
hours  to  complete  the  first  stage  of  the  drying. 

The  product  is  next  spread  on  wire  screens  and  further  dried  by  placing 
it  in  a  "  finisher,"  which  is  a  large  metal  cabinet  kept  at  100°  to  110°  F. 
After  remaining  in  the  finisher  two  or  three  hours,  the  dried  product  is  sifted 
and  graded  according  to  the  size  of  the  flake,  or  it  may  be  ground  to  a  uni- 
form size  or  powdered.  The  finished  product  usually  contains  from  3  to  8 
per  cent  of  moisture.  The  goods  are  packed  in  suitable  containers  and  placed 
in  storage  at  low  temperatures  pending  sale. 

Disk  method.  The  disk  method  consists  of  exposing  the  liquid  egg  in  a 
vat  to  a  series  of  large  slate  disks  arranged  on  a  slowly  revolving  shaft  or  axis. 
There  are  serious  objections  to  this  method  as  ordinarily  practiced,  since  the 


EGGS  157 

egg  is  not  fully  protected  from  the  outside  air,  and  more  frequent  handling  is 
necessary,  thus  subjecting  it  to  greater  exposure  to  contamination.  Each 
drying  requires  several  dippings,  which  are  treated  at  about  100°  F.,  the  hot 
air  being  blown  under  the  disks  from  the  side.  A  much  longer  time  is 
required  to  dry  eggs  by  this  method ;  the  machine  may  be  run  all  day  and 
the  material  further  dried  at  room  temperature  during  the  night,  to  be 
scraped  off  the  following  morning  and  subsequently  treated  like  other 
dried-egg  products. 

Tray  or  board  method.  The  tray  or  board  constitutes  one  of  the  simplest 
methods  of  drying  and  is  perhaps  the  least  satisfactory.  Liquid  eggs  are 
spread  by  hand  over  boards  or  trays  and  placed  on  shelves  in  especially  con- 
structed cabinets.  Hot  air  is  forced  through  this  cabinet,  entering  on  one 
side  and  escaping  on  the  other.  It  requires  about  six  hours  to  make  one 
drying  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  120°  F. 

Several  films  are  applied  in  each  drying,  and  the  whole  coat  is  allowed  to 
dry  further  overnight  at  room  temperature,  to  be  removed  on  the  following 
morning,  when  it  is  graded  and  packed  for  market. 

From  a  sanitary  viewpoint  this  method  is  highly  unsatisfactory  on  ac- 
count of  the  accumulation  of  egg  material  in  the  cracks  or  crevices  of  the 
boards  and  trays,  which  are  not  washed,  but  simply  "  cleaned  "  by  scraping 
off  the  residual  matter. 

Stiles  and  Bates  as  the  result  of  a  large  number  of  experiments 
to  determine  the  bacterial  content  of  frozen  and  dried  products 
from  eggs  of  different  grades  when  made  and  stored  under  known 
conditions  reached  the  following  conclusions : 

(i)  Under  normal  conditions,  strictly  fresh  eggs  contain  few 
if  any  bacteria,  and  no  appreciable  numbers  of  B.  coli  in  i  cc. 
quantities. 

(2)  Frozen  egg  products  prepared  in  the  laboratory  in  Wash- 
ington from  second-grade  eggs  comprising  *'  undersized," 
"  cracks,"  "  dirties,"  and  "  weak  eggs  "  generally  show  a  total 
bacterial  content  of  less  than  i,ooo,cxdo  organisms  per  gram, 
while  dried  eggs  prepared  from  the  same  grades  usually  contain 
a  total  bacterial  content  of  less  than  4,000,000  organisms  per 
gram,  both  kinds  containing  but  a  very  small  number  of  B.  coli; 
from  a  bacteriological  standpoint  they  are  considered  an 
edible  product. 


158  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

(3)  Frozen  products  made  from  "  light  spots,"  "  heavy  spots," 
"  blood  rings,"  and  "  rots  "  show  bacterial  counts  generally 
ranging  from  about  1,000,000  to  1,000,000,000,  while  dried  eggs 
made  from  the  same  grades  usually  contain  from  4,000,000  to 
more  than  1,000,000,000  organisms  per  gram  with  a  relatively 
high  proportion  of  B.  coli  and  streptococci  in  both  the  frozen 
and  dried  material,  indicating  an  unwholesome  article,  unfit 
for  food,  and  only  useful  for  tanning  leathers,  or  for  other 
technical  purposes. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  testimony  ofifered  in  the 
Federal  courts,  in  a  case  in  which  condemnation  of  a  shipment 
of  frozen  eggs  was  contested  by  the  owner,  tended  to  show  that 
market  eggs  such  as  are  accepted  without  question  as  food  may 
contain  many  more  bacteria,  both  in  total  numbers  and  of  the 
B.  coli  type,  than  would  be  expected  from  the  results  found  in 
the  government  laboratories. 

The  frozen  eggs  in  question  contained  large  numbers  of  bacteria, 
a  considerable  proportion  of  which  were  of  the  B.  coli  type. 
The  eggs,  however,  showed  no  taint  in  taste  or  odor  and  no  bad 
effects  when  eaten.  The  ammonia  content,  which  was  held 
to  be  the  best  chemical  evidence  of  decomposition,  was  about 
the  same  as  in  ordinary  market  eggs,  viz.,  about  3  parts  in  100,000. 

The  Federal  court  decided  in  favor  of  the  egg  company, 
holding  that  the  government  had  not  shown  the  eggs  to  be 
filthy,  decomposed,  putrid,  nor  unfit  for  human  food. 

REFERENCES 
I 

Atwater  and  Bryant.  Composition  of  American  Food  Materials.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Bulletin  28. 

Hutchison.     Food  and  Dietetics. 

KoNiG.     Chemie  der  menschlichen  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel. 

Langworthy.  Eggs  and  their  Uses  as  Food.  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  128. 


EGGS  159 

Leach.     Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 
Powell.     Cooperation  in  Agriculture. 

Taylor.     The  Prices  of  Farm  Products.    Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  209. 
TiBBLES.     Foods :  Their  Origin,  Composition  and  Manufacture. 
Watson.     Farm  Poultry. 
Wiley.     Foods  and  Their  Adulteration. 

II 

Osborne  and  Campbell.  Proteins  of  Egg  Yolk  and  Egg  White.  Journal 
American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  22,  pages  413-422,  422-450  (1900). 

Prall.  Preservation  of  Eggs.  Zeitschrift  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und 
Genussmittel,  Vol.  14,  pages  445-481  (1907). 

Wiley,  Pennington,  Stiles,  Howard,  and  Cook.  Effects  of  Cold  Storage 
on  Eggs,  Quail  and  Chickens.  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  115  ^1908). 

Hastings.  The  Egg  Trade  of  the  United  States.  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  140  (1909). 

Slocum.  Marketing  Eggs  through  the  Creamery.  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  26th  Annual  Report, 
pages  239-246  (1909). 

Pennington.  A  Chemical  and  Bacteriological  Study  of  Fresh  Eggs. 
Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  7,  pages  109-132  (1910). 

Pennington  and  Pierce.  The  Effect  of  the  Present  Method  of  Handling 
Eggs  on  the  Industry  and  on  the  Product.  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  461-476  (1910). 

Berger.  Preservation  of  Eggs.  Journal  Industrial  and  Engineering 
Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  493-495  (1911). 

Hepburn.  Handling,  Transportation  and  Storage  of  Perishable  Foodstuffs. 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Vol.  171,  pages  585-598;  Vol.  172, 
pages  173-1^3,  369-398  (1911)- 

Lamon.  The  Handling  and  Marketing  of  Eggs.  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1911,  pages  467-478  (1911). 

Barbieri.  The  Coloring  Matter  of  Egg  Yolk.  Comptes  rendus.  Vol.  154, 
pages  1 726-1 729  (191 2). 

Bartlett.  Eggs  preserved  with  Silicate  of  Soda.  Original  Communica- 
tions, Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  18, 
pages  51-56  (1912). 

Bryce.  Physics  of  Refrigeration.  American  Journal  of  Public  Health, 
Vol.  2,  pages  829-833  (191 2). 


l6o  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

Greenlee.     Osmotic  Activity  in  the  Egg  of  the  Common  Fowl.     Journal  of 

the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  34,  pages  539-545  (19 12). 
McCoLLUM,  Halpin,  and  Drescher.     Synthesis  of  Lecithin  in   the  Hen 

and  the  Character  of  the  Lecithin  Produced.     Journal  of  Biological 

Chemistry,  Vol.  13,  pages  219-224  (1912). 
Pennington.     Practical  Suggestions  for  the  Preparation  of  Frozen  and 

Dried  Eggs.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 

Chemistry,  Circular  98  (191 2). 
Pennington  and  Robertson.     A  Study  of  the  Enzymes  of  the  Egg  of 

the  Common  Fowl.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 

of  Chemistry,  Circular  104  (191 2). 
Report  of  the  Commission  to  Investigate  the  Subject  of  Cold  Storage  of 

Food.     Boston:   State,  191 2,  pages  308. 
Rettger  and   Sperry.     Antiseptic   and   Bactericidal   Properties  of  Egg 

White.     Journal  of  Medical  Research,  Vol.  26,  pages  55-64  (191 2). 
Stiles  and  Bates.     A  Bacteriological   Study  of  Shell,  Frozen  and  Desic- 
cated   Eggs.    United   States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 

Chemistry,  Bulletin  158  (1912). 
Wilson.     Economic  Results  of  Cold  Storage.     United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1911,  pages  23-32  (1912). 
De  Keghel.     Industrial  Preservation  of  Eggs.     Revue  chimie  industrielle, 

Vol.  24,  pages  12-18;  Abstracted  in  Chemical  Abstracts,  Vol.  7,  page 

3170  (1913)- 
Holmes.     Cold  Storage  and  Prices.    United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bulletin  loi  (1913). 
Eppler.     Investigations  on  the   Phosphatids  of   Egg   Yolk.     Zeitschrift 

fur  physiologische  Chemie,  Vol.  87,  pages  233-254  (1913). 
Trier.     Hydrolyses  of  Egg  Lecithin.     Zeitschrift  fiir  physiologische  Chemie, 

Vol.  86,  pages  141-152  (1913). 
Behre  and  Frerichs.     Control  of  Trade  Practices  in  the  Egg  Industry. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  27, 

pages  38-59  (1914)- 
Pennington.    A  Study  of  Commercial  Eggs.    United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  51  (1914). 


CHAPTER  VI 
MEATS  AND  MEAT  PRODUCTS 

The  industry  of  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  is  the  largest 
manufacturing  industry  in  the  United  States,  its  value  of  product 
for  the  year  1909  being  estimated  by  the  United  States  Census 
of  Manufactures  at  $1,370,568,000,^  This  includes  only  the 
products  of  the  1641  slaughter  houses  which  were  of  such  size 
as  to  be  classified  as  manufacturing  establishments ;  it  does  not 
include  the  meats  slaughtered  by  local  butchers  or  on  farms, 
which  must  of  course  be  added  if  the  estimate  is  to  represent 
the  value  of  the  meat  industry  or  the  amount  that  consumers 
pay  for  meat.  It  was  recently  estimated  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  that  the  annual  meat  bill  of  the  United 
States  approximates  $2,300,000,000  and  that  an  advance  in 
price  of  i  cent  per  pound  costs  consumers  about  $167,533,000 
a  year. 

The  meat-packing  industry  as  we  now  understand  it  began 
about  fifty  years  ago,  with  establishments  for  the  curing  and 
packing  of  pork  at  Cincinnati,  which  was  then  the  center  of  the 
corn  belt.  The  close  connection  between  corn  growing  and 
swine  raising  is  illustrated  by  a  comparison  of  Figs.  10  and  11. 

With  the  development  of  railroad  transportation,  and  the 
westward  extension  of  the  corn  belt,  the  center  of  the  pork- 
packing  industry  moved  to  Chicago;  and  with  the  introduction 
of  refrigerator  cars,  slaughter  of  beef  for  transportation  in  cold 
storage  has  grown  to  be  a  business  of  great  magnitude. 

1  The  second  and  third  largest  industries  for  the  same  year  according  to  the  same 
authority  were:  foundry  and  machine  shop  products,  $i, 228,475, cxxs;  lumber  and 
timber  products,  $1,156,120,000. 

M  161 


l62 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


MEATS  AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS 


163 


I 64  FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Beef 


Slaughter  house  methods.  The  animals  are  driven  up  an 
incline  to  the  upper  stories  of  the  packing  houses  so  that  after 
slaughter  the  carcasses  may  be  run  from  place  to  place  by 
gravity.  A  few  beeves  at  a  time  are  let  into  the  slaughter  pen, 
where  each  is  killed  by  a  blow  with  a  sledge-hammer.  The 
floor  of  the  pen  then  drops  like  an  elevator,  the  beeves  are  rolled 
out  upon  the  cement  floor  of  the  slaughter  house,  and  the  slaughter 
pen  is  raised  into  position  again.  The  dead  animal  is  at  once 
strung  up  by  the  hind  feet  and,  hanging  head  downward  from 
a  wheel  on  a  track  which  runs  from  room  to  room,  is  bled, 
dressed,  skinned,  and  the  carcass  divided  in  half  without  the 
necessity  of  any  lifting  or  the  use  of  power  to  transport  it. 

The  animal  is  bled  by  cutting  the  carotid  artery,  the  blood 
being  collected  by  itself  and  for  the  most  part  dried  for  fertilizer, 
though  a  part  of  it  may  find  its  way  into  food  products.  In 
Europe  blood  sausage  is  a  common  article  of  food;  here  it  is 
not  generally  popular,  but  a  small  amount  of  blood  is  sold  at 
a  large  profit  in  dried  or  condensed  form  in  patent  foods.  Com- 
mercial albumen  may  also  be  made  from  this  blood. 

Next  the  stomach  and  intestines  are  removed,  the  fat  which 
adheres  to  them  serving  for  the  preparation  of  oleo  oil  or  tallow, 
their  contents  going  into  the  cheaper  grades  of  tankage,  their 
muscular  walls  after  thorough  cleaning  being  available  for  food 
as  "  tripe."  The  lining  of  the  stomach,  particularly  of  calves, 
may  be  used  as  a  source  of  rennet. 

Then  the  hide,  horns,  and  hoofs  are  removed  and  worked  for 
oil,  gelatin,  glue,  leather,  hair,  and  horn,  the  trimmings  going 
into  the  tankage  for  fertilizer. 

Finally  the  carcass  is  split  down  the  backbone  and  the  halves 
sent  to  the  refrigerating  room  to  be  thoroughly  chilled. 

Although  not  more  than  twenty  minutes  may  elapse  between 
the  felling  of  the  animal  and  the  arrival  of  the  dressed  sides  at 


MEATS  AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  1 65 

the  refrigerator,  the  carcass  has  been  through  the  hands  of  a 
dozen  or  more  men,  each  one  performing  some  particular  opera- 
tion in  a  place  arranged  with  special  reference  to  the  work  to  be 
done,  and  the  convenience  of  handling  the  by-product  obtained, 
the  carcass  being  carried  from  place  to  place  by  the  slight  incline 
of  the  track  on  which  its  overhead  trolley  travels. 

In  beef  slaughtering,  the  "  dressed  weight  "  usually  approxi- 
mates 60  per  cent  of  the  "  live  weight." 

That  part  of  the  beef  which  is  to  be  sold  in  a  fresh  state  is  cut 
into  quarters  which,  when  properly  trimmed  and  chilled,  are 
loaded  into  refrigerator  cars  in  which  the  quarters  are  hung 
from  the  ceiling  as  in  an  ordinary  cold  storage  room;  the 
properly  refrigerated  car  is  shipped  under  seal  to  the  market 
where  the  meat  is  to  be  retailed.  Here  it  may  remain  in  cold 
storage  for  some  time  longer  before  being  actually  sold  to  the 
consumer. 

There  is  as  yet  no  general  concensus  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
a  limit  should  be  set  to  the  length  of  time  which  meat  may 
be  kept  in  cold  storage.  That  some  states  set  limits  to  the 
time  of  storage  of  all  food  was  explained  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

Naturally  meat  which  is  frozen  will  keep  with  less  change 
than  that  which  is  merely  cold,  and  when  it  is  to  be  kept  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time,  it  should  be  not  simply  chilled 
to  the  freezing  point  of  water,  but  actually  frozen  and  kept  in 
a  hard-frozen  condition. 

Cold  storage.  Richardson  and  Scherubel,  chemists  of  one  of 
the  large  packing  houses  in  Chicago,  have  published  ^  an  ex- 
tended chemical,  histological,  and  bacteriological  investigation 
of  beef  kept  frozen  for  over  eighteen  months. 

These  investigators  find,  as  had  previously  been  found  to  be 
the  case  in  plant  tissues,  that  when  the  moist  protoplasm  freezes, 
the  ice  forms  outside  rather  than  inside  the  cell  so  that  the 

1  Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  30,  pages  1515-1564. 


I 66  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

microscopic  examination  of  frozen  beef  shows  the  muscle  fibers 
shrunken  and  distorted  and  separated  by  layers  of  ice.  Richard- 
son holds  that  even  if  bacteria  could  retain  their  activity  at 
the  temperature  of  frozen  meat,  they  would  be  practically 
prevented  from  penetrating  into  the  meat  by  these  layers  of 
ice  which  separate  the  muscle  fibers,  and  that  the  histological 
changes  which  have  sometimes  been  reported  as  occurring  in 
frozen  meats  may  be  due  to  the  mere  physical  effects  of  freezing, 
especially  if  followed  by  too  rapid  thawing,  rather  than  to  any 
bacterial  change  or  other  deterioration. 

Richardson  and  Scherubel's  examinations  of  frozen  meat 
for  bacteria  both  by  direct  microscopic  and  by  cultural  methods 
indicated  that  beef  which  had  been  kept  frozen  even  so  long  as 
600  days  was  free  from  bacteria  at  a  depth  of  one  centimeter 
or  more  from  the  surface.  On  the  other  hand,  in  meat  kept  at 
2-4°  C.  bacteria  had  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  about  one  centi- 
meter in  thirty  days. 

The  principal  result  shown  by  chemical  analysis  of  a  large 
number  of  samples  of  beef  which  had  been  kept  frozen  from 
33  to  554  days  (in  a  room  whose  temperature  varied  from  —  9  to 
—  12°  C.)  was  that  the  exterior  of  the  meat  dried  to  a  depth  of 
from  2  to  4  millimeters  in  the  course  of  a  year  in  the  open  freezer, 
after  which  the  progress  of  the  drying  was  extremely  slow. 
The  moisture  content  of  the  portion  thus  dried  was  about  30 
per  cent ;  .that  of  the  frozen  meat  as  a  whole  was  about  76  per 
cent  —  the  same  as  for  corresponding  cuts  of  fresh  meat.  There 
was  no  increase  of  ammoniacal  nitrogen  in  the  stored  meats, 
which  is  considered  by  these  investigators  as  strong  evidence 
that  there  was  no  bacterial  decomposition  of  the  proteins. 
Neither  was  there  any  difference  between  the  fresh  and  frozen 
meats  as  regards  cold  water  extract,  total  nitrogen  of  cold  water 
extract,  or  the  coagulable  proteins,  the  albumoses,  or  the  nitrog- 
enous extractives. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  such  good  preservation 


MEATS   AND    MEAT   PRODUCTS  1 67 

over  long  periods  of  time  is  not  to  be  expected  of  meat  which 
is  merely  refrigerated  without  being  hard  frozen. 

Other  methods  of  preservation.  Aside  from  cold  storage, 
the  principal  means  of  preserving  meats  are  drying,  canning, 
and  the  application  of  preservative  substances. 

Drying  is,  when  applicable,  a  very  effective  method  and  has 
been  long  used.  In  some  climates  it  is  only  necessary  to  cut 
the  meat  into  strips  and  hang  it  out  of  doors.  The  "  jerked 
beef  "  of  the  West  was  prepared  in  this  way,  and  a  mixture  of 
dried  lean  meat  with  fat  known  as  "  pemmican  "  is  concentrated 
food  largely  used  by  explorers.  Dried  meat  is,  however,  by  most 
people  considered  less  attractive  than  fresh  meat,  and  as  a  com- 
mercial process,  the  drying  is  slow  and  troublesome. 

Canned  meat  is  now  put  up  in  large  quantities.  Often  all  of 
the  meat  of  the  fore  quarter  and  the  cheaper  cuts  of  the  hind 
quarter  are  canned.  There  is  a  tendency  to  use  the  leaner 
carcasses  for  canning,  both  because  the  fat  beeves  can  be  sold 
at  better  prices  in  the  fresh  state  and  because  the  leaner  meats 
are  more  attractive  than  the  fat  meats  when  canned. 

Sometimes  the  beef  is  cured  with  salt,  and  usually  also  a  little 
saltpeter,  and  then  canned  and  sold  as  "  canned  corned  beef." 
When  preserved  by  canning  alone  without  salting  the  product 
is  sometimes  called  "  canned  roast  beef  "and  sometimes  simply 
"  canned  beef."    The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  latter  process. 

The  meat  selected  for  canning  is  cut  into  pieces  usually  one 
to  four  pounds  each,  depending  upon  the  size  of  cans  to  be  filled. 
It  is  then  parboiled  by  putting  into  a  tank  with  water  and  cook- 
ing with  steam.  Or  the  meat  may  be  parboiled  in  larger  pieces, 
then  trimmed  free  from  gristle  and  superfluous  fat,  and  cut  by 
machinery  into  approximately  uniform  pieces  of  a  size  pro- 
portioned to  the  size  of  the  cans. 

The  parboiling  causes  a  shrinkage  of  the  meat  so  that  (while 
being  cooked  in  water)  its  water  content  is  diminished. 

That  part  of  the  fat  which  is  cooked  out  of  the  meat  rises  to 


I 68  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

the  top  and  is  skimmed  off ;  the  extractives,  the  salts,  and  the 
very  small  amounts  of  protein  which  are  extracted  remain  in 
solution  in  the  water  in  which  the  meat  is  cooked,  which  thus 
becomes  of  value  for  the  making  of  soup  stock  and  meat  extract. 

Wiley  estimated  that  this  cooking  extracts  a  little  over  one 
part  in  one  hundred  of  the  protein  of  the  meat,  about  one  third 
of  the  "  extractives,"  and  up  to  one  half  of  the  salts. 

After  the  parboiled  meat  has  been  packed  in  the  cans,  enough 
of  the  "  soup  liquor,"  made  by  concentrating  the  water  in  which 
the  meat  was  cooked,  is  added  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the 
pieces  and  to  restore  so  far  as  is  practicable  the  flavoring  con- 
stituents lost  in  parboiling.  This  added  "  soup  liquor  "  may 
also  contain  salt,  sugar,  or  molasses  as  a  flavoring. 

In  canning  tongue  and  in  other  cases  in  which  the  form  of 
the  product  is  to  be  preserved,  the  cans  are  filled  by  hand.  In 
the  case  of  corned  beef  and  potted  or  deviled  meat,  the  cans  are 
filled  by  means  of  the  "  stuffing  machine,"  which  presses  into 
the  can  approximately  the  required  amount  of  meat,  the  weight 
being  tested  and  adjusted  as  each  can  leaves  the  machine.  The 
cap  of  the  can  is  then  soldered  on  by  means  of  the  "  capping 
machine  "  which  leaves  the  can  completely  sealed  except  for 
the  small  vent  hole  in  the  top.  The  cans  are  then  tested  for 
leaks  and  any  leaks  found  are  repaired  by  hand. 

The  cans  are  then  sent  to  vacuum  machines  by  means  of 
which  the  air  is  exhausted  from  within  the  can  and  the  vent 
holes  sealed  while  the  can  is  in  the  vacuum  chamber.  From 
the  vacuum  machines  the  cans  are  run  out  on  tables  and  again 
inspected  to  make  sure  that  they  are  free  from  leaks. ^ 

The  cans  are  now  ready  for  "  processing,"  which  simply  means 
the  heating  of  the  can  and  contents  to  a  sufficient  temperature 
to  insure  its  keeping.  The  temperature  and  time  of  heating 
depend  chiefly  upon  the  size  of  the  cans,  but  also  to  some  extent 

'  Any  can  found  leaky  at  this  point  is  repaired  by  hand,  the  vent  reopenecj,  and 
the  can  returned  to  the  vacuum  machine. 


MEATS   AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  1 69 

upon  other  conditions.  Probably  the  most  usual  temperature 
is  between  225°  and  250°  F,  (io7°-i2i°  C.)  which  is  usually 
attained  by  the  use  of  superheated  steam  in  large  iron  or  steel 
boilers  or  "  retorts."  Sometimes  an  oil  bath  is  employed  as 
a  means  of  maintaining  the  high  temperature.  In  case  the 
nature  of  the  product  makes  it  desirable  to  avoid  a  temperature 
above  boiling,  the  processing  may  be  accomplished  by  placing 
the  cans  for  a  sufl&cient  length  of  time  in  large  open  kettles  or 
tanks  of  water  which  are  kept  at  the  boiling  point  by  means  of 
steam  coils. 

As  the  cans  come  hot  from  processing,  the  ends  are  slightly 
bulged  outward  owing  to  the  expansion  of  the  contents  by  the 
heating.  They  are  now  subjected  to  a  cold  spray  until  the 
contents  are  thoroughly  chilled,  when  the  ends  of  the  can  should 
be  slightly  concave  and  should  remain  so  until  the  can  is  opened 
for  use. 

Finally  the  cans  are  washed  in  alkali  to  remove  any  grease, 
then  in  water,  dried,  painted,  and  labeled.  Many  establish- 
ments maintain  warm  "  test  rooms  "  at  a  temperature  of  100- 
110°  F.  to  which  is  sent  a  sample  batch  of  each  "  run  "  of  canned 
meats  to  make  sure  that  no  cans  prove  defective  when  kept  for 
several  days  at  this  high  temperature. 

A  sound  can  should  have  slightly  concave  ends  and  should 
give  only  a  dull  sound  when  struck  on  the  top  or  bottom; 
a  can  which  shows  bulging  ends  and  emits  a  hollow  or  drum-like 
sound  when  struck  on  the  top  or  bottom  is  likely  to  be  leaky, 
or  improperly  packed,  or  to  contain  material  which  has  under- 
gone decomposition  with  production  of  gas. 

Application  of  preservative  substances  is  another  common 
and  important  method  of  preserving  meats.  The  substances 
which  have  been  used  to  any  considerable  extent  for  this  purpose 
are  salt,  saltpeter,  boric  acid  or  borates,  sulphites,  vinegar, 
wood  smoke,  and  sugar.  Salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  and  wood  smoke 
are  condimental  as  well  as  preservative  in  their  properties,  and 


1,'Seok. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Bibs. 

4.  Shonlder  clod. 

5.  Fore  shank. 

6.  Brisket. 

7.  Cross  ribs. 

8.  Plate. 

9.  Navel. 

10.  Loin. 

11.  Flank. 

12.  Bump. 

13.  Bound. 

14.  Second  cut  round. 

15.  Hind  shank. 


Fig.  12.  —  Cuts  of  beef.    (Atwater  and  Bryant.)    U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 


MEATS   AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  171 

there  is  no  restriction  upon  their  use.  Saltpeter,  in  addition 
to  its  preservative  action,  has  the  property  of  maintaining  or  even 
intensifying  the  red  color  of  beef.  Under  the  present  laws  it 
has  been  ruled  that  saltpeter  may  be  used  pending  further  in- 
vestigation regarding  its  wholesomeness.  Boric  acid  and  borax, 
which  when  used  are  employed  purely  for  their  preservative 
effect,  and  sulphites,  which  act  both  to  preserve  and  to  give 
the  meat  a  bright  appearance,  are  not  permitted  under  the  pres- 
ent United  States  meat  inspection  law.  In  England  and 
Canada,  on  the  other  hand,  no  objection  is  made  to  the  use  of 
limited  amounts  of  boric  acid  or  of  borax. 

Composition  of  beef.  The  data  given  in  Table  12  on  the 
composition  of  the  various  cuts  and  preparations  of  beef  are 
based  on  the  American  analyses  compiled  by  Atwater  and  Bryant. 
Their  designation  of  cuts  was  less  detailed  and  in  some  respects 
slightly  different  from  that  shown  earlier  in  the  chapter.  The 
designations  used  by  Atwater  and  Bryant  and  in  the  table 
which  follows  here,  are  as  indicated  in  Fig.  12. 

In  the  analyses  recorded  by  Atwater  and  Bryant  and  sum- 
marized here,  all  the  fat  found  on  the  respective  parts  of  the 
dressed  carcasses  was  included,  whereas  in  practice  much  of 
this  fat  is  trimmed  off  by  the  retail  butcher,  usually  still  more 
is  removed  during  the  preparation  of  the  meat  in  the  kitchen, 
and  any  distinct  layers  of  fat  which  remain  on  the  meat  when 
served  at  the  table  are  quite  likely  to  be  left  uneaten  —  or  at 
least  less  completely  eaten  than  is  the  lean  portion  of  the  beef. 
For  these  reasons  the  composition  of  the  various  cuts,  as  shown 
by  the  averages  of  all  analyses,  or  analyses  of  samples  classified 
as  medium  fat,  are  apt  to  show  a  very  much  higher  fuel  value 
than  is  in  practice  available  to  the  consumer  of  the  meat.  The 
accompanying  tables  show  the  averages  of  all  analyses  for  each 
cut  and  also,  wherever  available,  average  analyses  for  those 
specimens  of  the  cut  which  were  described  as  lean  or  very 
lean. 


172 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


The  lean  samples  contain  more  than  an  average  amoimt  of 
protein  while  the  average  samples  contain  more  fat  than  is 
usually  eaten,  so  that  each  exaggerates  the  food  value  in  one 
way  or  the  other.  In  dietary  calculations  or  in  comparing  the 
nutritive  economy  of  beef  and  other  foods  it  might  perhaps  be 
wise  to  credit  the  beef  with  the  protein  content  shown  by  the 
average  of  all  analyses  and  the  fuel  value  shown  by  the  analyses 
of  the  lean  specimens. 

Table  12.     Average  CoMPOsmoN  of  Cuts  of  Beep^ 


Description 


Si 

i 

D 
fa 

1 

Protein 

H 

■< 

\ 

0 
0 

■< 

X 

-a  ^ 

V 

pq 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

3 

— 

54-6 

iS-8 

16.0 

28.S 

— 

•9 

3 

23-3 

41.6 

12.0 

12.2 

22.3 

.6 

I 



73-8 

22.3 

21.3 

3-9 

— 

I.O 

I 

18.4 

60.2 

18.2 

17.4 

3-2 

" 

.8 

2 



71-3 

20.2 

19-5 

8.2 

— 

1.0 

2 

19-5 

57-4 

16.3 

15-7 

6.6 

.8 

13 



65.0 

19.2 

18.7 

15-4 

— 

•9 

12 

17-3 

54-0 

15-8 

15-5 

12-5 

— 

•7 

I 

— 

75-8 

22.2 

21.7 

1.4 

— 

I.I 

I 

16.7 

63.1 

18.6 

18. 1 

1.2 

— 

•9 

II 

— 

71-3 

195 

19.4 

8.3 

— 

1.0 

II 

22.7 

SS-i 

iS-i 

I5-0 

6.4 

— 

.8 

BEEF,  FRESH 

Brisket,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 
Chuck,  including  shoulder, 
very  lean : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     , 

As  purchased      .     .     .     , 
Chuck,  including  shoulder, 
lean: 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     , 

As  purchased      .     .     .     , 

Chuck,  including  shoulder, 

all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

As  purchased      .     . 
Chuck  rib,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion  .     . 

As  purchased     .     . 
Chuck  rib,  lean : 

Edible  portion  .     . 

As  purchased     . 


C(d. 

1450 
1 130 


564 
461 


702 
565 


978 
797 

46c 
387 

693 

535 


'Based  on  Atwater  and  Bryant's  Composition  of  American  Food  Materials. 
Bulletin  28  (Revised).  (Mce  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 


MEATS   AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


173 


Table  12.     Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Beef  —  Continued 


Description 


BEEF,  FRESH 

Chuck  rib,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Flank,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Flank,  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Flank,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Loin,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Loin,  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Loin,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion   . 

As  purchased      .     . 
Loin,  boneless  strip  :  ^ 
Loin,  sirloin  butt :  '■ 
Loin,  porterhouse  steak 

Edible  portion   . 

As  purchased 
Loin,  sirloin  steak :  * 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Loin,  tenderloin 
Navel,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 


Cm 

OS 
pa  5 

a 
Pi 

< 

Protein 

I 

H 

< 

§ 

■< 
U 

1 

v6 
X 

■0  0 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

21 

— 

66.8 

19.0 

18.8 

13-4 

I.O 

21 

19.I 

53.8 

15-3 

15.2 

II. I 



.8 

3 

— 

70.7 

25-9 

24.8 

3-3 



1.2 

3 

3-5 

68.2 

24.9 

23-9 

3-3 



I.I 

3 

— 

67.8 

20.8 

19.9 

II-3 

— 

1.0 

3 

1.4 

66.9 

20.S 

19.7 

II.O 



1.0 

16 

— 

59-3 

19.6 

18.7 

21. 1 



•9 

16 

5-5 

56.1 

18.6 

17.7 

19.9 



.8 

3 

— 

70.8 

24.6 

24.2 

3-7 



1-3 

3 

23.0 

54-6 

18.8 

18.5 

3-0 



•9 

12 

— 

67.0 

19.7 

19-3 

12.7 

— 

1.0 

II 

I3-I 

58.2 

17.1 

16.7 

II. I 



•9 

S6 

— 

61.3 

19.0 

18.6 

19.1 



1.0 

55 

13-3 

52.9 

16.4 

16.0 

16.9 



•9 

6 

— 

66.3 

17.8 

16.2 

16.7 



.8 

6 

— 

62.5 

19.7 

18.9 

17.7 



.9 

7 

— 

66.0 

21.9 

18.6 

20.4 



1.0 

7 

12.7 

52.4 

19.1 

16.2 

17.9 



.8 

21 

— 

61.9 

18.9 

18.6 

18.5 



1.0 

21 

12.8 

54-0 

16.S 

16.2 

16.1 



•9 

6 

— 

59-2 

16.2 

15-6 

24.4 



.8 

I 

— 

68.6 

30-7 

29.4 

.6 



1.4 

I 

2.9 

66.6 

29.8 

28.5 

.6 



1.4 

1  All  loin  parts  are  included  under  analyses  of  "  loin.' 


174  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Table  12.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Beef  —  Continued 


Description 


BEEF,  FRESH 

Neck,  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Neck,  all  analyses : 

Edible  j)ortion    . 

As  purchased 
Plate,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Plate,  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Plate,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Ribs,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Ribs,  lean : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Ribs,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased      .     .     . 

Rib  rolls,  lean,  as  purchased 

Rib   roUs,   all   analyses,   as 

purchased       .     .     .     . 

Rib  trimmings,  all  analyses 

as  purchased 
Ribs,  cross,  very  lean  : 

Edible  p>ortion    .     . 

As  purchased      .     . 
Ribs,  cross,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

As  purchased      .     . 


1^ 


Per 
cent 


29-5 


31.2 


37-4 


17-3 


1Q.8 


233 


22.6 


341 


12.8 


12.S 


Per 
cent 


70.1 
495 

66.3 
45-3 

69.1 
430 

65-9 
S4-4 

56.3 
44.4 

70.9 
54-2 

67.9 
52.6 

57-0 
45-3 
69.0 

64.8 

3S-7 

65.8 
57-4 

549 
48.0 


Protein 


Per 
cent 


21.4 
IS-I 

20.7 
14.2 

22.8 
136 

15-6 
130 

16.8 
131 

25.0 
19.4 

19.6 
15.2 

17.8 
14.4 
20.2 

19.4 

II.O 

18.0 

15-6 

iS-9 
13-8 


i98 

•n  a 


Per 

cent 

20.5 
14.4 

20.0 
13-6 

22.1 
13-2 

14.6 
12.2 

16.0 

12-5 

24.4 

i8.g 

19.1 
14.8 

17-5 
139 
19-5 

18.8 

10.5 

18.4 
1 6. 1 

16,1 
14.0 


Per 
cent 

8.4 
5-9 

12.7 
9.2 

7-7 
S-7 

18.8 
iS-S 

26.9 
22.7 

3-5 
2.7 

12.0 
9-3 

24.6 
20.0 
10.5 

iS-S 

19.2 

14.9 
13.0 

28.2 
24.8 


Per 
cent 


MEATS   AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  1 75 

Table  12.     Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Beef  —  Continued 


Description 


BEEF,  FRESH 

Round,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Round,  lean : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Round,  all  analyses 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Round,  second  cut 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Rump,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Rump,  lean : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased      .     . 
Shank,  fore,  all  analyses 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Shank,  hind,  all  analyses 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Shoulder    and    clod,    very 
lean : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 
Shoulder  and  clod,  lean  : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 
Shoulder     and      clod,      all 
analyses : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 


is 

< 

Protein 

< 

2 

n 
0 

s 

< 

0 

m 

X 

n 

Per 

cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 

cent 

6 

— 

73-6 

22.6 

22.3 

2.8 

— 

1-3 

6 

10.6 

659 

20.2 

19.9 

2.4 

— 

1.2 

31 

— 

70.0 

21.3 

21.0 

7-9 

— 

I.I 

29 

8.1 

64.4 

19-5 

19.2 

7-3 

— 

1.0 

62 

— 

67.8 

20.9 

20.5 

10.6 

— 

I.I 

54 

8.5 

62.5 

19.2 

18.8 

9.2 

— 

1.0 

2 

— 

69.8 

20.4 

20.5 

8.6 

— 

I.I 

2 

19-5 

56.2 

16.4 

16.5 

6.9 

— 

•9 

4 

— 

71.2 

23.0 

22.5 

5-1 

— 

1.2 

4 

14-3 

60.9 

19-5 

19.I 

4.6 

— 

I.I 

4 

— 

65-7 

20.9 

19.6 

13-7 

— 

1.0 

3 

14.0 

56.6 

19.1 

17-5 

II.O 

— 

•9 

IS 

— 

70.3 

21.4 

20.7 

8.1 

— 

•9 

IS 

38.3 

43-2 

13.2 

12.7 

5-2 

— 

.6 

14 

— 

69.6 

21.7 

20.7 

8.7 

— 

1.0 

14 

55-4 

31-0 

9-7 

9-3 

3-9 

~ 

.4 

4 



76.1 

21.3 

21.5 

1-3 



I.I 

4 

23-3 

58.3 

16.3 

16.5 

I.O 

— 

•9 

S 

— 

73-1 

20.4 

20.4 

5-4 

— 

I.I 

4 

18.8 

59-4 

16.4 

16.5 

4-4 

" 

•9 

28 



68.9 

20.0 

19.7 

10.3 

— 

I.I 

23 

17.4 

S7-0 

16.S 

16.3 

8.4 

— 

•9 

176  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Table  12.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Beef  —  Continued 


ftm 

Protein 

1 

■J  e 

®W 

H 

ti 

ti 

Description 

i| 

I 

X 

Is 

IS 
n 

§ 

1 

>l 

Is 

beef,  fresh 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cal. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

Fore  quarter,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

2 

— 

74.1 

22.1 

21.3 

3-6 

— 

l.o 

548 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

30-3 

5I-S 

15-4 

14.8 

2.7 

— 

7 

390 

Fore  quarter,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

4 

— 

68.6 

18.9 

18.4 

12.2 

— 

8 

841 

As  purchased      .... 

4 

22.3 

53-3 

14.7 

14-3 

9-S 

— 

6 

6SS 

Fore  quarter,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .... 

18 

— 

62.S 

18.3 

17.7 

18.9 

— 

9 

IIOO 

As  purchased      .... 

18 

20.6 

49-5 

14.4 

1 4. 1 

iS-i 

— 

7 

878 

Hind  quarter,  very  lean  : 

Edible  portion    .... 

2 

— 

72.0 

24.0 

23-3 

2,-S 

— 

I 

2 

578 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

21.0 

56.9 

19.0 

18.4 

2.8 

— 

9 

459 

Hind  quarter,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

4 

— 

66.3 

20.0 

19-3 

13-4 

— 

I 

0 

910 

As  purchased      .... 

4 

16.6 

ss-z 

16.7 

16.1 

II. 2 

— 

8 

760 

Hind  quarter,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .... 

18 

— 

62.2 

193 

18.6 

18.3 

— 

9 

IIOO 

As  purchased      .... 

18 

16.3 

52.0 

16.I 

15-5 

iS-4 

— 

8 

921 

Sides,  very  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

2 

— 

73-1 

23.0 

22.3 

3-5 

— 

I 

I 

560 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

26.0 

S4-0 

17.0 

16.5 

2.7 

— 

8 

419 

Sides,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

4 

— 

67.2 

193 

18.7 

13.2 

— 

9 

890 

As  purchased      .... 

4 

19.S 

54-1 

iS-S 

I5-I 

10.6 

— 

7 

714 

Sides,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .... 

18 

— 

62.2 

18.8 

18.1 

18.8 

— 

9 

mo 

As  purchased      .... 

18 

18.6 

50.S 

15.2 

14.7 

iS-S 

— 

7 

909 

Miscellaneous  cuts,  free  from 

all  visible  fat       ... 

II 

— 

73-8 

22.4 

22.1 

2.9 

— 

I 

2 

525 

Clear  fat       

7 

— 

134 

4.1 

4.1 

82.1 

— 

4 

3425 

Soup  stock 

I 

— 

89.1 

— 

5-8 

1-5 

— 

3 

6 

166 

beef  organs 

Brain,  edible  portion       .     . 

I 

— 

80.6 

8.8 

g.o 

9-3 

— 

I.I 

540 

Heart,  edible  portion      .     . 

2 

— 

62.6 

■ 

16.0 

16.0 

20.4 

— 

I.O 

H2S 

MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  177 

Table  12.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Beef  —  Continued 


S 

U 
t4 

Protein 

S 

H 

< 

% 

u 

n 
< 

Description 

X 

-a  c 
m 

BEEF  ORGANS 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Col. 

Kidney,  as  purchased      .     . 

19.9 

63.1 

13-7 

— 

1.9 

•4 

I.O 

333 

Beef  liver,  as  purchased  .     . 

7-3 

65.6 

20.2 

— 

3-1 

2-5 

1-3 

539 

Lungs,  as  purchased        .     . 

— 

79-7 

16.4 

1 6. 1 

3-2 

— 

1.0 

438 

Marrow,  as  purchased     . 

— 

3-3 

2.2 

2.6 

92.8 

— 

1-3 

3830 

Sweetbreads,  as  purchased 

— 

70.9 

16.8 

15-4 

12. 1 

— 

1.6 

800 

Suet,  as  purchased      .     .     . 

9 

— 

13-7 

4-7 

4.2 

81.8 

— 

•3 

3420 

Tongue : 

Edible  portion    .... 

3 

— 

70.8 

18.9 

IQ.O 

9.2 

— 

1.0 

719 

As  purchased      .... 

3 

26.5 

S1.8 

14.1 

14.2 

6.7 

— 

.8 

530 

BEEF,   COOKED 

Round    steak,     fat    partly 

removed 

18 

— 

63.0 

27.6 

27-5 

7-7 

— 

1.8 

81S 

Sirloin  steak,  baked    .     .     . 

I 

— ■ 

63.7 

23-9 

24.7 

10.2 

— 

1.4 

850 

Loin       steak,       tenderloin, 

broiled,  edible  portion 

6 

— 

54-8 

23-5 

23.6 

20.4 

— 

1.2 

1260 

Sandwich  meat       .... 

3 

— 

58.3 

28.0 

27.9 

II.O 

— 

2.8 

958 

BEEF,   CANNED 

Chili-con-carne 

I 

— 

75-4 

13-3 

— 

4.6 

4.0 

2.7 

502 

CoUops,  minced 

I 

— 

72.3 

17.8 

— 

6.8 

I.I 

1.9 

611 

Corned  beef 

IS 

— 

51.8 

26.3 

25-5 

18.7 

— 

4.0 

1240 

Dried  beef     .     . 

2 

— 

44.8 

39-2 

38.6 

5-4 

— 

II. 2 

932 

Kidneys,  stewed 

2 

— 

71.9 

18.4 

— 

S-i 

2.1 

2-5 

570 

Luncheon  beef 

I 

— 

52.9 

27.6 

26.4 

15-9 

— 

4.8 

1150 

Roast  beef    .     . 

4 

— 

58:9 

25-9 

25-0 

14.8 

— 

1-3 

1070 

Rump  steak 

I 

— 

56.3 

24-3 

23-5 

18.7 

— 

i-S 

I200 

Sweetbreads 

I 

— 

69.0 

20.2 

19-5 

9-S 

— 

2.0 

755 

Tongue,  ground 

6 

— 

49.9 

21.4 

21.0 

25.1 

— 

4.0 

1410 

Tongue,  whole  . 

5 

— 

Si-3 

I9-S 

21.5 

23.2 

— 

4.0 

1300 

Tripe   .... 

2 

— 

74-6 

16.8 

16.4 

8.S 

— 

•S 

652 

BEEF,  CORNED  AND  PICKLED 

Corned  beef,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .... 

10 

— 

53-6 

iS-6 

15-3 

26.2 

— 

4.9 

1350 

As  purchased      .... 

10 

8.4 

49-2 

14-3 

14.0 

23.8 

— 

4.6 

1230 

178  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Table  12.     Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Beef  —  Continued 


h 

Protein 

I 

Hi 

5  ? 

Description 

0  ^ 

w 

ai 
U 
h 
M 
OH 

< 

X 

Is 

1 

§ 

1 

BEEF,  CORNED  AND  PICKLED 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 

Ca/. 

Spiced  beef,  rolled      .     .     . 

I 

— 

30.0 

12.0 

//.<? 

.SI. 4 

— 

6.8 

2320 

Tongues,  pickled : 

Edible  portion    .... 

2 

— 

62.3 

12.8 

12.5 

20.S 

— 

4.7 

1070 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

6.0 

58.9 

11.9 

II.6 

19.2 

— 

4.3 

1000 

Tripe 

4 

— 

86.5 

11.7 

II.8 

1.2 

.2 

•3 

265 

BEEF,    DRIED,    ETC. 

Dried,  salted,  and  smoked : 

Edible  portion    .... 

7 

— 

S4-3 

30.0 

30.1 

6.5 

— 

9.1 

810 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

4-7 

S3-7 

26.4 

25.8 

6.9 

— 

8.9 

761 

Veal 

Veal  is  the  meat  of  calves  which  under  the  United  States 
Meat  Inspection  Regulations  must  be  not  less  than  three  weeks 
old  at  the  time  of  slaughter.*  Meat  of  calves  less  than  three 
weeks  old  is  popularly  known  as  "  bob  veal." 

As  a  food  veal  is  generally  regarded  in  this  country  with 
less  favor  than  beef,  and  with  greater  suspicion  the  younger  the 
animal.  Thus  Oilman  Thompson  writes :  "  Veal,  especially 
when  obtained  from  animals  killed  too  young,  is  usually  tough, 
pale,  dry,  and  indigestible."  According  to  Friedenwald  and 
Riihrah :  "  Veal  is  tough  and  indigestible,  especially  when 
obtained  from  animals  that  are  killed  too  young.  It  differs 
considerably  in  flavor  from  beef,  and  contains  more  gelatin 
than  the  latter.     As  in  many  persons  veal  has  a  tendency  to 

'  In  Europe  no  objection  is  raised  to  the  use  of  veal  from  younger  calves.  Edel- 
mann  states  that  in  Germany  calves  are  commonly  slaughtered  at  from  three  days 
to  three  weeks  of  age. 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


179 


produce  indigestion,  it  is  to  be  avoided  in  all  cases  of  digestive 
debility." 

Laboratory  experiments  upon  the  digestibility  and  whole- 
someness  of  veal  are  now  (1913-1914)  in  progress  in  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  veal  is  quite  different  from 
that  followed  in  the  case  of  beef.  The  cuts  recognized  in  the 
tables  of  Atwater  and  Bryant  are  shown  in  Fig.  13. 


1.  Neck. 

6.  RibB. 

2.  Chuck. 

7.  Loin. 

3.  Shoulder. 

8.  Flauk. 

4.  Fore  shahk. 

9.  Leg. 

5.  Breast. 

10.  Hind  shank. 

Fig.   13.  —  Cuts  of  veal.     (Atwater  and  Bryant.)     U.  S.   department  of 
Agriculture. 


The  average  composition  of  the  various  cuts  of  veal,  based 
on  the  results  of  American  analyses  compiled  by  Atwater  and 
Bryant,  is  given  in  Table  13. 


i8o 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Table  13.    Average  Cojiposition  of  Cuts  of  Veal 


Desckction 


Breast,  very  lean 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Breast,  lean : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Breast,  all  analyses 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Chuck,  lean : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Chuck,  all  analyses 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Flank,  all  analyses 
chased   .     . 

Leg,  lean : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Leg,  all  analyses : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Leg,  cutlets : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Loin,  lean : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Loin,  all  analyses 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Neck: 

Edible  portion 
As  purchased 


as  pur- 


!1 

•< 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

I 

— 

73-2 

I 

46.8 

38.9 

3 

— 

70.3 

3 

234 

540 

8 

— 

68.2 

8 

24-5 

51-3 

I 

— 

76.3 

I 

19.0 

61.8 

7 

— 

73.8 

7 

19.0 

59-8 

6 

— 

66.9 

9 

— 

73-5 

9 

9.1 

66.8 

19 

— 

71.7 

18 

II. 7 

634 

3 

— 

70.7 

3 

3-4 

68.3 

5 

— 

73-3 

5 

22.0 

57-1 

13 

— 

69s 

13 

18.9 

56.3 

6 

— 

72.6 

6 

31-5 

49-9 

Protein 


la  p. 


Per       Per 
cent      cent 


23.1 
12.3 


21.2 
iS-7 


20.3 
15-3 


19.7 
16.0 


21.3 
19.4 


20.7 
18.3 


20.3 
20.1 


20.4 
159 


19.9 
16.1 


20.3 
13-9 


23.1 
12.3 

20.y 
16. 1 

19.8 
14.8 

20.6 
16.7 

19.4 
15-7 

19.4 

21.2 
19-3 

20.5 
1 8. 1 

20.5 
19.8 

19.9 
15.6 

19.4 
15-7 

19-5 
13-3 


1 

< 

1 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

2.5 

— 

1.2 

1-3 

— 

.7 

8.0 

— 

I.O 

6.2 

— 

•7 

II.O 



1.0 

8.6 

.8 

1.9 

— 

1.2 

1.6 

— 

•9 

5-8 

— 

1.0 

4-7 

— 

.8 

12.7 

— 

1.0 

4.1 

— 

1.2 

3-7 

— 

I.I 

6.7 

— 

I.I 

5.8 

— 

1.0 

7-7 

— 

I.I 

7-S 

— 

1.0 

S.6 

— 

1.2 

4-4 

— 

•9 

lO.O 

— 

I.I 

8.2 

— 

•9 

6.9 

— 

1.0 

4.6 

— 

•7 

MEATS  AND  MEAT  PRODUCTS 


l8l 


Table  13.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Veal  —  Continued 


Description 


Rib,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Rib,  all  analyses : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Rump: 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased 
Shank,  fore : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Shank,  hind,  medium  fat 

Edible  portion    , 

As  purchased 
Shoulder,  lean : 

Edible  portion    , 

As  purchased 
Fore  quarter : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Hind  quarter : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 
Side,  with  kidney,  fat,  and 
tallow : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 

VEAL  organs 

Heart,  as  purchased  .  . 

Kidneys,  as  purchased  .  . 

Liver,  as  purchased    .  .  . 

Lungs,  as  purchased  .  .  . 


Per 

cent 


25-3 


25.0 


30.2 


40.4 


62.7 


18.3 


24-5 


20.7 


Per 

cent 


72.7 
54-3 

69.8 
52.3 

62.6 
43-7 

74.0 
44.1 

74-5 
27.8 

73-4 
59-9 

71.7 
54- 2 

70.9 
56.2 


Protein 


71-3 
22.6    55. 2 


73-2 
75-8 

73-0 
76.8 


Per 
cent 


20.7 
lS-5 

20.2 

IS-2 
19.8 

13-8 

20.7 
12.2 

20.7 

7-7 

20.7 
16.9 

20.0 
iS-i 

20.7 
16.2 


20.2 
15.6 


16.8 
16.9 
19.0 
17.1 


as 

T3  C 


Per 

cent 


20.1 
15-0 

ig.7 

14.8 

20.1 
14.0 

19.8 

II.8 

19.9 
7-4 

20.7 
16.9 

19.4 
14.6 

19.8 
15-7 


19.6 
1 5 -I 


16.2 
16.5 
20.4 
17.1 


Per 

cent 


6.1 
4.6 

9.4 
7-1 

16.2 
II-3 

5-2 
3-1 

4.6 
1-7 

4.6 
3-9 

8.0 
6.0 

8.3 
6.6 


8.1 
6.3 


9.6 
6.4 
S-3 


Per 

cent 


I.O 
.8 


\ 


l82 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 
Mutton  and  Lamb 


Sheep  and  lambs  are  slaughtered  by  bleeding  and  then  dressed 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  cattle.  The  dressed  weight  is 
usually  45  to  50  per  cent  of  the  live  weight. 

According  to  Atwater  and  Bryant  the  cuts  in  a  side  of  mutton 
or  lamb  number  but  six,  three  in  each  quarter.     The  "  loin  " 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck: 

3.  Shoulder. 

4.  Flank. 
6.  Loin. 
6.  Leg. 


Fig.  14.  —  Cuts  of  lamb  and  mutton.     (Atwater  and  Bryant.)     U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture. 

extends  forward  to  the  shoulder  blades  and  the  "  flank  "  is  made 
to  include  all  the  under  side  of  the  animal.     (See  Fig.  14.) 

The  term  "  chops  "  is  used  to  designate  portions  of  either  the 
loin,  ribs,  chuck,  or  shoulder  which  are  cut  or  "  chopped  "  by 
the  butcher  into  pieces  suitable  for  broiling  or  frying. 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


183 


The  following  table  (Table  14)  gives  the  composition  of  cuts 
of  mutton  and  lamb  according  to  Atwater  and  Bryant. 

Table  14.    Average  Composition  of  Lamb  and  Mutton 


Description 


LAMB,    FRESH 

Breast  or  chuck : 

Edible  portion  .  .     .     . 

As  purchased  .  .     .     . 
Leg,  hind,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion  .  .     .     . 

As  purchased  .  .     .     . 
Loin,   without   kidney   and 
tallow : 

Edible  portion  .  . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Neck: 

Edible  portion  .  . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Shoulder : 

Edible  portion  .  . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Fore  quarter : 

Edible  portion  .  . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Hind  quarter : 

Edible  portion  .  . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Side,  without  tallow : 

Edible  portion  .  . 

As  purchased  .  . 

LAMB,  COOKED 
Chops,  broiled  : 

JMible  portion    .     . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Leg, roast      .... 


Protein 

u 

tn 

U 

H 

< 

X 

< 

s 
§ 

0 

< 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

— 

56.2 

19.I 

19.2 

23.6 

— 

I.O 

19.I 

45-5 

15-4 

15-5 

19.I 

— 

.8 

— 

63-9 

19.2 

18.5 

16.S 

— 

I.I 

17.4 

52.9 

iS-9 

15.2 

13.6 

~. 

•9 



53-1 

18.7 

17.6 

28.3 



1.0 

14.8 

45-3 

16.0 

15-0 

24.1 

— 

.8 

— 

56.7 

17.7 

17-5 

24.8 

— 

1.0 

17.7 

46.7 

14.6 

14.4 

20.4 

— 

.8 

— 

51.8 

18.1 

17-5 

29.7 

— 

1.0 

20.3 

41-3 

14.4 

14.0 

23.6 

— 

.8 

— 

5S-I 

18.3 

18.1 

25.8 

— 

1.0 

18.8 

44-7 

14.9 

14.7 

21.0 

— 

.8 

— 

60.9 

19.6 

19.0 

19.1 

— 

1.0 

15-7 

51-3 

16.5 

16.0 

r6.i 

— 

•9 

— 

S8.2 

17.6 

17.6 

23.1 

— 

I.I 

19-3 

47.0 

14.1 

14.2 

18.7 

— 

.8 



47.6 

21.7 

21.2 

29.9 



1-3 

13-5 

40.1 

18.4 

1S.5 

26.7 

— 

1.2 

67.1 

19.7 

19.4 

12.7 

— 

.8 

1 84 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Table  14.    Average  Composition  of  Lamb  and  Mutton  —  Continued 


Sa 

u 

ii  Protein 

in 

< 

go 

ti  g 

Description 

B  55 

3 

^ 

NO 

X 

IS 

< 

0 

< 

0 

1 

>l 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cal. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

LABIB,   canned 

Tongue,  spiced  and  cooked : 

Edible  portion    .... 

I 

— 

67.4 

13-9 

14-3 

17.8 

— 

•5 

980 

As  purchased      .... 

I 

2.6 

65.7 

^3-5 

13-9 

17-3 

— 

•S 

951 

mutton,  fresh 

Chuck,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

I 

— 

64.7 

17.8 

18.I 

16.3 

— 

•9 

989 

As  purchased      .     . 

I 

19s 

52.1 

14-3 

14-5 

131 



.8 

794 

Chuck,  aU  analyses : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

10 

— 

48.2 

14.6 

14.2 

36.8 

— 

.8 

1767 

As  purchased      .     . 

10 

19.4 

38.5 

II. 7 

11.4 

30.0 

— 

•7 

1437 

Flank,  medium  fat :     , 

Edible  portion    .     . 

8 

— 

46.2 

152 

14.8 

38.3 

— 

•  7 

1839 

As  purchased      .     . 

2 

9.9 

39-0 

13.8 

13-6 

36.9 

— 

.6 

1757 

Leg,  hind,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

3 

— 

67.4 

19.8 

19.1 

12.4 

— 

I.I 

86s 

As  purchased      .     . 

3 

16.8 

S6.i 

16.S 

15-9 

10.3 

— 

•9 

720 

Leg,  hind,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

II 

— 

62.8 

18.S 

18.2 

18.0 

— 

I.O 

1070 

As  purchased      .     . 

II 

18.4 

512 

iS-i 

14.9 

14-7 

— 

.8 

874 

Loin,  without  kidney  or  tal- 

low, mediimi  fat : 

Edible  portion    .... 

13 

— 

50.2 

16.0 

15-9 

33-1 

— 

.8 

1642 

As  purchased      .     . 

12 

16.0 

42.0 

13-5 

13.0 

28.3 

— 

•7 

1400 

Loin,  free  fat  removed 

I 

— 

56.5 

23-7 

239 

18.S 

— 

I.I 

ii8s 

Neck,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

10 

— 

S8.i 

16.9 

16.3 

24.6 

— 

1.0 

1311 

As  purchased      .     . 

10 

27.4 

42.1 

12.3 

11.9 

17.9 

— 

•7 

954 

Shoidder,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

I 

— 

67.2 

19-5 

18.9 

12.9 

— 

1.0 

905 

As  purchased      .     . 

I 

25-3 

S0.2 

14.6 

14.2 

9.6 

— 

•7 

67s 

Shoulder,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion    .     . 

7 

— 

61.9 

17.7 

17-3 

19.9 

— 

•9 

"33 

As  purchased      .     . 

7 

22.5 

47-9 

137 

13-4 

I5-S 

•7 

881 

MEATS  AND  MEAT  PRODUCTS 


185 


Table  14.    Average  Composition  of  Lamb  and  Mutton  —  Continued 


U 
P4 

Protein 

1. 

< 
g 

m 
I 

' 

go 

Description 

'6 
X 

>l 

Fore  quarter : 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Col. 

Edible  portion    .... 

10 

— 

52.9 

IS.6 

15-3 

30-9 

— 

•9 

IS4S 

As  purchased      .... 

10 

21.2 

41.6 

12.3 

12.0 

24-5 

— 

•7 

1224 

Hind  quarter : 

Edible  portion    .... 

10 



54-8 

16.7 

16.3 

28.1 

— 

.8 

1451 

As  purchased      .... 

10 

17.2 

45-4 

13-8 

13-5 

23.2 

— 

•7 

1198 

Side,  including  tallow : 

Edible  portion    .... 

25 



54-2 

16.3 

16.0 

28.9 

— 

•9 

1475 

As  purchased      .... 

25 

18.I 

45-4 

13.0 

12.7 

23.1 

— 

•7 

1 180 

MUTTON,   COOKED 

Mutton,    leg    roast,    edible 

portion 

2 



SO-9 

25.0 

25-3 

22.6 

— 

1.2 

1377 

MUTTON,    ORGANS 

Heart,  as  purchased  .     .     . 

2 

— 

69-5 

16.9 

17.0 

12.6 

— 

•9 

821 

Kidneys,  as  purchased    .     . 

1 

— 

78.7 

16.S 

16.8 

3-2 

— 

1-3 

430 

Liver,  as  purchased    .     .     . 

2 

— 

61.2 

23.1 

— 

9.0 

5-0 

1-7 

878 

Lungs,  as  purchased  .     .     . 

2 



75-9 

20.2 

20.1 

2.8 

— 

1.2 

481 

MUTTON,   CANNED 

Corned 

I 

— 

45-8 

28.8 

27.2 

22.8 

— 

4.2 

I4S4 

Tongue     

I 



47.6 

24.4 

23.6 

24.0 

— 

4.8 

1423 

Pork 

The  slaughtering  and  packing  of  pork  is  carried  on  largely 
in  the  same  establishments  with  the  beef -packing  industry,  but 
the  processes  are  quite  different.  The  hog  is  killed  by  bleeding 
and  then  scalded  by  dropping  into  a  tank  of  hot  water  from  which 
the  carcass  is  drawn  up  through  a  tower  in  which  mechanical 
scrapers  remove  the  bristles,  thence  through  the  hands  of  sue- 


i86 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


cessive  workmen  who  dress  and  trim  the  carcass,  split  it  in  half, 
and  send  the  halves  to  the  refrigerating  room.  This  entire 
process  is  completed  in  about  12  minutes,  the  carcasses  follow- 
ing each  other  over  the  same  track  with  almost  incredible  rapid- 
Hy,  sometimes  as  many  as  400  hogs  per  hour. 


■•/•■  Ml>j^i,l>\ 


1.  Head. 

2.  Shoulder. 

3.  Back. 

4.  Middle  cat. 
6.  Belly. 

6.  Ham. 

7.  Kibs. 

8.  Loin. 


Fig.  15.  —  Cuts  of  pork.     (Atwater  and  Bryant.)    U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  by-products  of  slaughter  are  utilized  according  to  the 
same  general  principles  as  in  the  beef  industry,  but  with  many 
differences  in  detail  which  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Hogs  are  dressed  without  removal  of  the  heads,  and  being 
fatter  than  cattle  show  a  larger  yield  of  dressed  weight  —  usually 
75  to  85  per  cent  of  the  live  weight. 

After  having  himg  a  couple  of  days  in  the  chilling  room  the 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


187 


sides  of  pork  are  taken  out,  cut  into  the  usual  market  pieces, 
a  part  sent  to  the  refrigerator  cars  to  be  marketed  fresh  and  a 
much  larger  part,  generally  about  nine  tenths  of  the  whole,  is 
cured  in  various  ways  chiefly  by  salting  or  smoking  or  both. 

The  fat  from  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  hog  furnishes  the 
"  leaf  lard  "  of  commerce.  Lower  grades  of  lard  are  rendered 
from  trimmings  and  various  parts  not  suitable  for  making  into 
sausage. 

Besides  supplying  the  home  market,  this  country  exports 
hundreds  of  millions  of  pounds  of  lard  each  year.  Lard  will 
be  discussed  further  in  connection  with  other  edible  fats  in  a 
later  chapter. 

In  general  about  one  eighth  of  the  live  weight  is  obtained  in 
lard  and  about  the  same  in  hams,  while  the  yield  of  shoulders 
is  slightly  less  (about  one  tenth  of  the  live  weight)  and  the 
remainder,  aside  from  the  head,  is  cut  into  different  proportions 
of  loin,  back,  ribs,  middle  cut,  and  belly  according  to  circum- 
stances and  demands.  One  division  of  the  side  of  pork  is  shown 
in  Fig.  15,  and  the  average  composition  of  the  cuts  thus  repre- 
sented is  given  by  Atwater  and  Bryant  as  follows  (Table  15) : 


Table  15.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Pork 


U 
fa 
U 
Oi 

oi 

Protein 

< 

I 

< 

0 

« 

Is 

Description 

X 

2; 

•V  0 

Per 
cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 
cent 

Col. 

PORK,   FRESH 

Ham,  fresh,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 
As  purchased      .... 
Ham,  fresh,  medium  fat : 

2 
2 

■9 

60.0 
59-4 

25.0 
24.8 

24-3 
24.2 

14.4 
14.2 

— 

1-3 
1-3 

1042 
1030 

Edible  portion    .... 
As  purchased      .... 

10 
ID 

10.7 

53-9 
48.0 

15-3 
13-5 

16.4 
14.6 

28.9 
25-9 

— 

.8 
.8 

1457 
1302 

FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  15.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Pork  —  Continued 


Description 


u 

H 

PC 

•< 

Protein 

S 

2 

§ 

< 
u 

1 

V5 

X 

Is 

•0  a 
m 

Per 

cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 

cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

3 
3 

68.4 

45-3 
13-8 

13-4 
4.1 

12.7 

3-8 

41-3 
13-8 

— 

•7 
.2 

3 

I 

12. 1 

43-3 
42.3 

I9-S 
18.9 

i6.g 
18.6 

33-8 
24.0 

— 

3-3 
3-0 

I 
I 

23-S 

60.3 
46.1 

20.3 
iS-5 

19.7 
I5-I 

19.0 
14-5 

— 

I.O 

.8 

19 
19 
II 

19.7 

52.0 
41.8 
66.5 

16.6 

13-4 
18.9 

16.9 
13-5 
19-5 

30.1 
24.2 
13.0 

E 

1.0 

.8 

1.0 

3 
3 

19.7 

48.2 
38.6 

iS-7 
12.7 

14.8 
12. 1 

36.3 
28.9 

— 

•7 
•7 

19 
19 

12.4 

51-2 

44.9 

13-3 
12.0 

13-8 
12.2 

34-2 
29.8 

— 

.8 

•7 

3 
3 

II. 2 

29.4 
26.1 

9.4 
8.3 

8.5 
7-5 

61.7 
54-8 

— 

•4 
•4 

II 
II 

ii-S 

34-4 
30-4 

9.1 
8.0 

9.8 
8.6 

55-3 
49.0 

— 

•S 
•5 

8 
8 

5-7 

25.1 
23-7 

6.4 
6.0 

6.9 
6.4 

67.6 
63.8 

— 

•4 
•4 

8 
8 

6.2 

31-4 
29-5 

6.9 
6.5 

7.8 
7-3 

60.4 
56.6 

— 

•4 
•4 

I 

— 

75-8 

II. 7 

12.3 

10.3 

— 

1.6 

PORK,  FRESH 

Head: 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Head  cheese : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Loin  (chops),  lean: 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Loin  (chops) ,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Loin,  tenderloin 
Middle  cuts : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Shoulder : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Side,  lard  and  other  fat  in 
eluded : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 

Side,  not  including  lard  and 

kidney : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Clear  backs : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Clear  bellies : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased . 

PORK   ORGANS,    ETC. 

Brains,  as  purchased  .     , 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


189 


Table  15.    Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Pork  —  Continued 


Description 


pork  organs,  etc. 

Heart,  as  purchased  . 
Kidneys,  as  purchased 
Liver,  as  purchased  . 
Lungs,  as  purchased  . 
Marrow,  as  purchased 


PORK,  PICKLED,  SALTED,  AND 
SMOKED 

Ham,  smoked,  lean : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 
Ham  smoked,  medium  fat : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 
Ham,  luncheon,  cooked : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 
Shoulder,  smoked,  medium 
fat: 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased      .     . 
Pigs'  tongues,  pickled 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Pigs'  feet,  pickled : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Dry-salted  backs : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 
Dry-salted  bellies : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased 


Per 

cent 


II-5 


13.6 


3-2 


2,S-S 


8.2 


Per 

cent 


75-6 
77.8 
71.4 

83.3 
14.6 


53-5 
47.2 

40.3 
34-8 

49.2 
48.1 


4S-0 
36.8 

S8:6 
56.8 

68.2 
44.6 

17-3 
159 

17.7 
16.2 


Protein 


Per 

cent 


17.I 

iS-S 
21.3 
II.9 

2-3 


19.8 
17-5 

16.3 
14.2 

22.5 
22.1 


iS-9 
13.0 

17.7 
17.1 

16.3 
10.2 

7-7 
7-1 

8.4 
7-7 


la  4) 

-o  a 


Per 

cent 


17.I 


4.2 


20.2 
17.Q 


24.0 
23-5 


15-8 
i2.g 

18.0 
17-5 

16.1 

lO.O 

7.2 
6.5 

6.7 

6.2 


Per 
cent 


6.3 
4.8 

4-5 
4.0 

3l.2 


20.8 
18.S 


16. 1    38.8 
14-0    33-4 


21.0 
20.6 


32.5 
26.6 

19.8 
19.1 

14.8 
9-3 

72.7 
66.8 

72.2 
66.2 


Per 

cent 


1 9© 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table   15.     Average  Composition  of  Cuts  of  Pork  —  Continued 


Description 


pork,  pickled,  salted,  and 

smoked 
Salt  pork,  clear  fat     .     .     . 
Bacon,  smoked,  all  analyses ; 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 
Ham,  deviled 

sausage 
Aries : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 
Bologna : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 

Frankfort 

Pork,  as  purchased     .     .     . 
Pork  and  beef  chopped  to- 
gether, as  purchased     . 
Summer : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased      .... 


Per 
cent 


8.7 


S-2 


3-3 


7.0 


Per 
cent 


7-9 

20.2 
18.4 
44.1 


17.2 
16.3 

60.0 
SS-2 
57-2 
39-8 

SS-4 

23.2 
20.9 


Protein 


Per 

cent 


1.9 

lo.s 

9-5 
19.0 


26.8 
25-4 

18.7 
18.2 
19.6 
13.0 

19.4 

26.0 
24-5 


S3  u 
T3  a 


Per 

cent 


9-9 

9.0 

18.5 


24.9 
23.6 

18.4 
18.0 
19.7 
12.7 

19.5 

24.6 
23.0 


Per 

cent 


86.2 

64.8 
59-4 
34.1 


S0.6 
48.0 

17.6 
19.7 
18.6 
44.2 

24.1 

44-S 
42.1 


7-3 
6.9 

3-7 
3-8 
3-4 
2.2 


Col. 


3S7S 

2836 
2597 
1738 


2SS4 
2422 

1063 
"34 
1034 
2052 

1327 

2289 
2163 


Legislation  and  Inspection 
Since  meats  vary  so  greatly  in  fat  content  it  is  impracticable 
to  set  standards  for  percentages  of  nutrients.  Moreover,  as 
ordinarily  sold  by  the  butcher  there  is  little  chance  for  any  such 
robbing  of  nutrients  as  is  involved  in  the  skimming  and  watering 
of  milk.  Standards  of  quantitative  composition  have  therefore 
not  been  adopted  for  meat  itself,  although  there  are  such  stand- 
ards for  certain  manufactured  products  of  meat  as  will  be  seen 
later. 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  191 

Standards  for  meat  itself  relate  chiefly  to  the  healthfulness  of 
the  animals  from  which  obtained  and  the  sanitary  conditions  in 
which  the  meat  is  handled.  These  are  matters  of  great  im- 
portance. In  the  preface  to  their  translation  of  Edelmann's 
Textbook  of  Meat  Hygiene,  Mohler  and  Eichhorn  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  write :  "  Of  the  various 
classes  of  foods,  meat  is  one  of  the  most  important,  and  it  is 
certainly  the  one  most  subject  to  conditions  rendering  it  un- 
wholesome or  even  dangerous." 

Not  only  are  certain  diseases  of  animals  communicable  to 
man  through  eating  of  the  flesh,  but  also  there  is  always  danger 
through  lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  slaughter  house,  exposure  to 
dust  or  flies,  handling  by  men  who  are  "  carriers  "  of  disease 
germs,  or  by  other  accident,  that  meat  may  be  infected  with 
organisms  such  as  the  Bacillus  enteritidis  which  according  to 
Buchanan  multiply  in  the  meat,  producing  poisonous  products 
which  are  not  destroyed  by  cooking,  and  which  are  now  con- 
sidered to  be  the  commonest  cause  of  food  poisoning,  including 
what  is  ordinarily  called  ptomaine  poisoning. 

The  flesh  may  become  infected  with  Bacillus  enteritidis  either 
before  or  after  the  slaughter  of  the  animal.  Veterinary  in- 
spection seeks  to  exclude  animals  thus  infected  as  well  as  those 
diseased  in  other  ways.  To  prevent  the  infection  of  the  meat 
during  slaughter  house  operations  and  subsequent  handling 
requires  strict  sanitation. 

Experiments  cited  by  Buchanan  ^  have  shown  that  when 
Bacillus  enteritidis  is  placed  upon  the  surface  of  fresh  meat,  it 
rapidly  penetrates  to  the  interior  of  the  tissues  even  when  the 
meat  is  stored  at  a  relatively  low  temperature. 

Since  this  organism  may  occur  in  the  intestinal  contents  and 
feces  of  even  healthy  animals  it  is  plain  that  every  precaution 
should  be  used  to  see  not  only  that  the  am'mal  is  not  diseased 
but  also  that  fecal  material  is  never  allowed  to  come  in  contact 

1  Household  Bacteriology,  pages  386-389. 


192  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

with  the  healthy  tissues.     This  means  the  rigid  exclusion  of 
flies  and  a  high  degree  of  cleanliness  in  all  the  operations. 

Veterinary  and  sanitary  inspection  and  control  of  slaughter 
houses  and  meat  packing  establishments  is  therefore  extremely 
important.  For  the  establishments  which  send  products  into 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  this  is  provided  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  under  the  meat  inspection 
law  of  1906.  Official  records  show  that  a  total  of  over  55,000,000 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine  are  thus  inspected  annually. 
There  are,  however,  about  as  many  more  which  are  slaughtered 
for  food  in  establishments  doing  business  entirely  within  one 
state  and  which  therefore  do  not  come  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  national  authorities.  Thus  there  is  urgent  need  of  ade- 
quate state  and  municipal  inspection  to  supplement  the  Federal 
inspection  in  order  to  ensure  the  wholesomeness  of  all  meat  sold 
to  consumers. 

Only  the  provisions  of  the  Federal  inspection  can  be  discussed 
here. 

Federal  meat  inspection.  In  an  amendment  to  the  law  making 
appropriation  for  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Public  Number  382,  approved  June  30,  1906)  Congress  au- 
thorized the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  provide  for  inspection 
of  all  packing  houses  whose  products  enter  into  interstate  or 
foreign  commerce,  to  inspect  all  animals  before  and  after  slaugh- 
ter and  condemn  all  carcasses  or  parts  thereof  found  unfit  for 
food.  It  was  provided  that  inspectors  shall  have  access  to  all 
parts  of  the  packing  houses  at  all  times  of  the  day  and  night 
to  examine  all  meat  food  products  prepared  "  and  said  inspectors 
shall  label,  mark,  stamp,  or  tag  as  '  Inspected  and  Condemned  ' 
all  such  products  found  unsound,  unhealthful,  and  unwholesome, 
or  which  contain  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredients 
which  render  such  meat  food  products  unsound,  unhealthful, 
unwholesome,  or  unfit  for  human  food :  Provided,  that  subject 
to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the 


MEATS   AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  193 

provisions  hereof  in  regard  to  preservatives  shall  not  apply  to 
meat  food  products  for  export  to  any  foreign  country  and  which 
are  prepared  or  packed  according  to  the  specifications  or  direc- 
tions of  the  foreign  purchaser,  when  no  substance  is  used  in  the 
preparation  or  packing  thereof  in  conflict  with  the  laws  of  the 
foreign  country  to  which  said  article  is  to  be  exported."  Meats 
from  healthy  animals  prepared  in  sanitary  establishments  in 
accordance  with  all  requirements  are  labeled  "  Inspected  and 
Passed,"  and  only  meat  products  so  labeled  are  allowed  in  inter- 
state or  foreign  commerce.  The  penalties  provided  for  violation 
of  this  meat  inspection  law  are  more  severe  than  those  for  vio- 
lation of  the  general  food  law,  and  the  sum  appropriated  for 
the  work  of  meat  inspection  ($3,000,000  a  year)  is  much  greater 
than  has  yet  been  provided  for  the  enforcement  of  the  Food  and 
Drugs  Act. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  authorized  to  furnish  "  certifi- 
cates of  exemption  "  to  farmers  and  retail  butchers,  who  are 
exempted  under  the  law.  The  regulations  governing  the  meat 
inspection  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  are 
published  in  Order  No.  211  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
of  the  Department,  to  which  Bureau  is  delegated  the  conduct  of 
this  work.  Among  these  regulations  are  detailed  require- 
ments as  to  sanitary  arrangements  in  slaughter  and  packing 
houses,  and  the  sanitary  conduct  of  all  the  operations;  also 
explicit  provision  as  to  what  diseases  (and  in  what  degrees) 
shall  cause  a  carcass  to  be  condemned,  what  may  be  passed,  and 
what  intermediate  grades  may  be  rendered  for  lard  or  tallow 
but  not  used  for  meat.  Condemned  meats  are  treated  with 
such  colors  as  would  prevent  their  sale  for  food,  and  as  soon  as 
possible  are  placed  in  rendering  tanks  and  '*  a  sufficient  force  of 
steam  is  turned  into  the  tank  and  maintained  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  effectually  to  render  the  contents  unfit  for  any  edible 
product."  The  regulation  regarding  preservative  substances 
and  colors  provides  that  common  salt,  sugar,  wood  smoke, 


194  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

vinegar,  pure  spices,  and  saltpeter  may  be  added.  Sodium 
benzoate  may  be  used  when  its  presence  and  amoimt  are  shown 
on  the  label.  Only  such  coloring  matters  as  may  be  designated 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  being  harmless  may  be  used 
and  these  only  in  such  manner  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
may  designate. 

The  full  text  of  the  meat  inspection  law  and  some  of  the 
regulations  for  its  enforcement,  especially  those  which  are  in 
the  nature  of  requirements  as  to  sanitation,  and  the  sanitary 
handling  of  meats  and  other  slaughter  house  products  intended 
for  food  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

Federal  inspection  is  now  (1914)  maintained  at  about  800 
slaughtering  and  packing  establishments. 

The  need  of  adequate  state  and  city  meat  inspection  to  sup- 
plement the  work  of  the  Federal  authorities  has  already  been 
mentioned.  This  is  important  both  to  secure  proper  conditions 
in  local  slaughter  houses  and  to  insure  proper  handling  of  the 
meat  in  wholesale  and  retail  markets  and  shops.  The  flesh 
of  a  healthy  animal  should  be  practically  sterile  at  slaughter, 
and  we  have  seen  (page  165)  that  in  good  meat  kept  frozen  the 
multiplication  and  penetration  of  bacteria  is  slow ;  but  in  a  recent 
study  by  Weinzirl  and  Newton,  the  bacteria  content  of  Hamburg 
steak  as  sold  was  found  to  range  from  269,000  to  525,000,000 
bacteria  per  gram,  about  half  the  samples  examined  showing 
over  10,000,000.  Plainly  consumers  should  demand  a  more 
careful  handling  of  meat  products. 

Standards  of  Composition  for  Meat  Products 

Meat  is  defined  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists  ^  as  "  any  clean,  sound,  dressed  and  properly  prepared 
edible  part  of  animals  in  good  health  at  the  time  of  slaughter, 
and  if  it  bears  a  name  descriptive  of  its  kind,  composition,  or 

'  Standards  of  Purity  for  Food  Products.  Circular  No.  19,  Office  of  the  Secretary 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


MEATS   AND    MEAT   PRODUCTS  195 

origin,  it  corresponds  thereto."  It  has  already  been  explained 
that  variations  in  fatness  make  it  impracticable  to  set  stand- 
ards as  to  actual  percentages  of  nutrients  in  meat  itself.  Such 
standards  have,  however,  been  established  or  proposed  for  a 
number  of  the  manufactured  products  of  meat. 

Sausage,  according  to  a  regulation  promulgated  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  must  not  contain  cereal  in  excess  of 
2  per  cent,  nor  added  water  or  ice  in  excess  of  3  per  cent,  and  if 
water  and  cereal  in  excess  of  such  percentage  be  present,  the 
material  should  be  labeled  "  sausage,  water,  and  cereal." 

This  standard  guards  against  two  forms  of  adulteration  of 
sausage  which  were  more  or  less  prevalent :  (i)  the  direct  addi- 
tion of  water  to  tough,  fibrous  sausage  meat  which  under  certain 
mechanical  treatment  could  be  made  to  take  up  a  considerable 
quantity  of  added  water ;  (2)  the  mixing  of  sausage  meat  with 
cereal  products  such  as  cracker  crumbs  which  are  cheaper  in  the 
first  place  than  meat  and  which  are  also  capable  of  absorbing 
much  added  water,  thus  adding  still  further  to  the  weight.  In 
order  to  simulate  the  appearance  of  ground  meat  such  cereal 
products  are  sometimes  reddened  by  means  of  special  dyes 
("  blood  color,"  etc.). 

Beef  extract  was  highly  recommended  by  Liebig,  who  at  one 
time  supposed  to  it  be  of  great  nutritive  value  because  it  con- 
tained much  nitrogen  in  a  form  readily  absorbed  from  the 
digestive  tract. 

Later  he  realized  that  this  was  an  error  and  said  that  the 
extract  "  does  not  give  us  strength  but  makes  us  aware  of  our 
strength,"  In  other  words  he  realized  that  the  effect  of  the 
meat  extract  is  that  of  a  stimulant  rather  than  a  food. 

Manufacturers  of  beef  extract  still  frequently  apply  the  term 
"  Liebig's  extract  "  to  their  product. 

In  South  America,  especially  before  the  country  was  thickly 
settled  and  before  facilities  for  transportation  of  meat  for  long 
distances  under  refrigeration  had  been  introduced,  large  factories 


196  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

for  the  manufacture  of  beef  extract  were  established  and  droves 
of  cattle  were  slaughtered  for  their  hides  and  the  extract  ob- 
tained from  their  flesh,  the  rest  of  the  flesh  being  merely  a  by- 
product. 

B^ef  is  now  shipped  from  South  America  not  only  to  Europe, 
but  also  to  the  United  States,  where  it  is  now  (1913-1914)  in 
commercial  competition  with  home-grown  beef;  but  large 
quantities  of  beef  extract  are  still  made  in  South  America  and 
it  is  also  of  considerable  importance  as  one  of  the  numerous 
secondary  products  of  the  beef-packing  industry  in  the  United 
States. 

Pieces  of  meat  removed  in  trimming  quarters  and  sides  for 
market,  as  well  as  cuts  for  which  there  is  less  market  demand, 
are  cut  small  and  put  in  water  in  a  closed  digester  (generally 
with  the  addition  of  salt)  and  heated  under  a  pressure  of  15 
atmospheres  of  steam  for  several  hours  until  the  extraction  is 
judged  to  be  complete,  then  allowed  to  cool,  the  fat  removed 
from  the  surface,  and  the  liquid  strained  to  remove  the  solid 
pieces. 

The  aqueous  solution  thus  obtained  may  be  used  either  for 
soup  stock  or  for  making  beef  extract.  In  the  latter  case  the 
liquid  is  concentrated  in  a  partial  vacuum  to  the  consistency 
of  a  pasty  solid  or  of  a  viscous  liquid. 

About  35  pounds  of  meat  are  supposed  to  yield  i  pound  of 
concentrated  extract  which  on  dilution  makes  about  7  gallons 
of  beef  tea. 

Creatin  has  usually  been  considered  the  characteristic  nitrogen 
compound  of  meat  extract.  Purin  bases  are,  however,  also 
present  and  may  have  greater  physiological  significance.  Potas- 
sium phosphate  is  the  principal  salt  (unless  extra  sodium 
chloride  has  been  added)  and  this  doubtless  plays  a  part*  in 
the  stimulating  effects  of  the  extract.  The  acidity  of  the  extract 
is  usually  attributed  to  lactic  acid. 

The  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  has  pro- 


MEATS   AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  197 

posed  the  following  definitions  and  standards  for  meat  and  bone 
extracts,  meat  juices,  commercial  peptones,  and  gelatin. 

Meat  extract  is  the  product  obtained  by  extracting  fresh  meat 
with  boiling  water  and  concentrating  the  liquid  portion  by 
evaporation,  after  removal  of  the  fat,  and  contains  not  less  than 
75  per  cent  total  solids,  of  which  not  over  27  per  cent  is  ash 
and  not  over  1 2  per  cent  is  sodium  chloride  (calculated  from  the 
total  chlorine  present) ;  not  over  0.6  per  cent  is  fat,  and  not 
less  than  8  per  cent  is  nitrogen.  The  nitrogenous  compounds 
contain  not  less  than  40  per  cent  of  meat  bases  and  not  less  than 
10  per  cent  of  creatin  and  creatinin. 

Fluid  meat  extract  is  identical  with  (solid)  meat  extract,  except 
that  it  is  concentrated  to  a  lower  degree  and  contains  not  more 
than  75  per  cent  and  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  total  solids. 

Bone  extract  is  the  product  obtained  by  extracting  fresh 
trimmed  bones  with  boiling  water  and  concentrating  the  liquid 
portion  by  evaporation  after  removal  of  fat,  and  contains  not 
less  than  75  per  cent  of  total  solids. 

Fluid  bone  extract  is  identical  with  bone  extract,  except  that 
it  is  concentrated  to  a  lower  degree  and  contains  not  more  than 
75  per  cent  and  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  total  solids. 

Meat  juice  is  the  fluid  portion  of  muscle  fiber,  obtained  by 
pressure  or  otherwise,  and  may  be  concentrated  by  evaporation 
at  a  temperature  below  the  coagulating  point  of  the  soluble 
proteins.  The  solids  contain  not  more  than  15  per  cent  of  ash, 
not  more  than  2.5  per  cent  of  sodium  chloride  (calculated  from 
the  total  chlorine  present),  not  more  than  4  per  cent  nor  less 
than  2  per  cent  of  P2O5,  and  not  less  than  12  per  cent  nitrogen. 
The  nitrogenous  bodies  contain  not  less  than  35  per  cent  of 
coagulable  proteins,  and  not  more  than  40  per  cent  of  meat 
bases. 

Peptones  are  products  prepared  by  the  digestion  of  protein 
material  by  means  of  enzymes  or  otherwise,  and  contain  not 
less  than  90  per  cent  of  proteoses  and  peptones. 


198 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Gelatin  (edible  gelatin)  is  a  purified,  dried,  inodorous  product 
of  the  hydrolysis,  by  treatment  with  boiling  water,  of  certain 
tissues,  as  skin,  ligaments,  and  bones,  from  sound  animals,  and 
contains  not  more  than  2  per  cent  of  ash  and  not  less  than  15 
per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

Many  of  the  products  which  have  been  commonly  sold  as 
meat  extracts  and  meat  juices  would  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  these  definitions  and  standards. 

Yeast  extracts  and  perhaps  other  plant  extracts  are  coming 
into  increasing  use  as  substitutes  for  or  adulterants  of  meat 
extracts.  Plant  extract  is  distinguished  from  meat  extract  by 
the  absence  of  creatin  and  creatinin.  In  a  recent  examination 
of  "  bouillon  cubes  "  as  sold  in  the  United  States,  Cook  finds 
large  quantities  of  salt  and  a  considerable  substitution  of  plant 
extract  for  meat  extract.  The  results  of  Cook's  analyses  are 
as  follows  (Table  16) : 

Table  16.     The  CoMPOsrrioN  of  Cojiaiercial  Bouillon  Cubes  (Cook) 


Cube 
No.i 


Source  of  Manufacture 


Approx- 

Salt 

Water 
AND  Fat 

imate 
Amount 
OF  Meat 
Extract 
present 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

62 

5-25 

28 

65 

9 

23 

65 

8 

18 

67.5 

5 

17.8 

59-2 

7 

17.8 

49-25 

5-75 

15-33 

53 

4.1 

14.6 

72 

S-S 

14 

72.S 

8.5 

8-33 

72 

8.5 

8.17 

Approx- 
imate 
Amount 
of  Plant 
Extract 
present 


I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 


United  States 
Germany  . 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
United  States 
Germany  . 
United  States 
United  States 


Per  cent 

4-75 

3 

9 

9-7 
16 

29.66 
28.3 

8-5 
10.92 

11-33 


1  Cubes  arranged  in  table  in  order  of  content  of  meat  extract. 


MEATS   AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  199 

While  regarded  as  adulterants  when  found  in  meat  extracts, 
plant  extracts  may  prove  to  be  important  food  adjuncts  on 
account  of  their  "  vitamines."  It  remains  to  be  seen  what  the 
ultimate  status  of  plant  extract  will  be. 

Nutritive  Value  of  Meats  and  Meat  Products 

Although  meats  differ  greatly  in  the  nutrients  which  they 
contain,  these  differences  are  due  in  the  main  to  simple  varia- 
tions in  fatness.  The  protoplasm  of  the  muscle  cells  consists 
mainly  of  proteins  swollen  and  partially  dissolved  in  3  to  4  times 
their  weight  of  water,  in  which  are  small  amounts  of  other 
organic  compounds  and  about  i  per  cent  of  ash.  The  fat  of 
meat  is  usually  deposited  partly  in  the  cells,  but  more  largely 
in  the  connective  tissue  between  the  cells,  where  it  often  forms 
layers  of  considerable  thickness.  Since  fat  neither  dissolves  in 
nor  absorbs  water,  it  is  evident  that  the  deposition  of  fat  either 
in  or  between  the  muscle  cells  does  not  alter  the  composition  of 
the  actual  protoplasm. 

When  an  animal  is  killed,  the  muscular  protoplasm  coagu- 
lates (rigor  mortis),  but  without  essential  change  in  the  amount 
or  distribution  of  moisture,  protein,  or  fat.  A  piece  of  meat 
may  therefore  be  regarded  as  mainly  a  mixture  of  fat  and 
coagulated  protoplasm,  the  latter  being  chiefly  composed  of 
protein  with  3  to  4  times  its  weight  of  water.  We  should  there- 
fore expect  the  fat-free  substance  of  fresh  meat  to  contain  from 
20  to  25  per  cent  of  protein  regardless  of  the  amount  of  fat  which 
is  or  was  present. 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  average  proximate  com- 
position and  the  percentage  of  protein  in  the  fat-free  substance 
of  the  entire  edible  portion  of  different  meats  and  fish.  The 
data  are  taken  from  the  tables  of  analyses  in  Bulletin  28,  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations,  the  figures  for  proteins  being  the  mean 
between  those  given  in  the  bulletin  as  "  protein  by  difference  " 


200 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


and  that  obtained  by  multiplying  the  percentage  of  nitrogen 
by  6.25. 

Table  17.     Showing  Relation  of  Water,  PROTEm,  and  Fat  in 
Meats  (and  Fish) 


Kind  of  Meat  or  Fish 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Protein  in 
Fat-free 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Beef  (fat)     .... 

59-7 

17-75 

22.0 

0.9 

22.8 

Beef  (lean) 

67.2 

19.0 

13.2 

0.9 

21.9 

Veal    .     . 

71-3 

19.9 

8.1 

I.O 

21.7 

Mutton    . 

53-6 

16.0 

29.8 

0.8 

22.8 

Lamb .     . 

58.2 

17.6 

23.1 

I.I 

22.9 

Pork   .     . 

34-4 

9-5 

55-3 

0.5 

21.3 

Fowls .     . 

637 

19.2 

16.3 

1.0 

22.9 

Bass   .     . 

77-7 

18.45 

2.8 

1.2 

19.0 

Blackfish 

79.1 

18.6 

1-3 

I.I 

18.8 

Halibut   . 

75-4 

18.5 

5-2 

1.0 

19s 

Salmon    . 

64.6 

21.6 

12.8 

1-4 

26.6 

Shad  .     . 

70.6 

18.7 

9-5 

1-3 

20.7 

Trout  (lake) 

70.8 

17-75 

10.3 

1.2 

19.8 

In  some  species  the  water  content  of  the  tissues  changes 
markedly  with  age,  but  among  the  meats  which  play  any  im- 
portant part  in  the  diet  high  fat  content  is  associated  with  de- 
creased percentages  of  both  water  and  protein,  the  ratio  of 
water  to  protein,  or  the  percentage  of  protein  in  the  fat-free 
substance,  being  nearly  the  same  for  the  different  species,  the 
young  and  mature  of  the  same  species,  and  the  different  degrees 
of  fatness.  This  of  course  does  not  mean  that  all  cuts  of  meat 
free  from  visible  fat  are  of  the  same  composition,  for  the  manner 
in  which  the  fat  is  deposited  in  the  muscles  differs  somewhat 
with  the  species.  Beef  fat  is  mainly  in  distinct  layers  which 
can  be  mechanically  separated  from  the  lean,  while  in  pork  and 
some  other  meats,  the  fat  exists  largely  as  minute  layers,  in- 
visible to  the  naked  eye,  surrounding  the  individual  muscle 
fibers  and  not  separable  by  ordinary  mechanical  means. 


MEATS   AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  20I 

Among  the  fish,  the  differences  in  the  protein  content  of  the 
fat-free  substance  are  larger,  and  the  protein  content  appears 
not  to  be  diminished  in  those  cases  in  which  the  fat  content  is 
higher.  In  general  the  muscular  protoplasm  of  the  fatter  kinds 
of  fish  is  about  as  rich  in  protein  as  the  protoplasm  of  meats, 
while  among  the  leaner  kinds  of  fish  the  muscular  protoplasm 
is  more  watery. 

The  fuel  value  of  meat  or  fish  is  very  directly  dependent 
upon  its  fatness;  a  gram  of  clear  fat  has  a  fuel  value  of 
about  9  Calories,  whereas  a  gram  of  clear  lean  containing 
about  one  fourth  gram  protein  has  a  fuel  value  of  but 
I  Calorie. 

The  amount  of  glycogen  present  in  muscular  tissue  as  usually 
marketed  is  too  small  to  be  of  significance  in  determining  the 
food  value.  Some  kinds  of  meats  tend  to  be  richer  in  glycogen 
than  others,  horse-flesh  than  beef  for  example. 

The  fais  vary  somewhat  in  composition  both  as  between 
different  species  and  different  organs  of  the  same  species,  but 
so  far  as  is  known,  these  variations  in  the  composition  of  the 
fat  are  of  little  nutritive  significance. 

Protein.  As  between  muscle  protein  and  gelatin,  there  are 
pronounced  differences.  It  has  long  been  known  that  gelatin 
alone  cannot  meet  the  entire  protein  requirement  of  the  animal 
body.  Since  the  development  of  methods  for  the  isolation  of 
individual  amino  acids  from  the  products  of  hydrolysis  of  pro- 
teins, this  deficiency  in  food  value  of  gelatin  has  been  correlated 
with  the  absence  of  certain  amino-acid  radicles,  conspicuously 
tryptophan. 

The  amounts  of  amino  acids  thus  far  isolated  from  beef 
protein  and  from  gelatin  are  compared  in  Table  i8. 

Opinions  vary  as  to  whether  there  are  significant  differences 
in  the  extractives  of  different  kinds  of  meat.  Hutchison  and 
Gautier  hold  that  there  are  no  well-marked  differences,  while 
^Wiley  reports  comparative  analyses  of  light  and  dark  meat  of 


202 


FOOD   PI^DUCTS 


fowls  according  to  which  the  dark  meat  is  much  richer  in  "  meat 
bases  "  than  the  light. 

Table  i8.     Amino  Acids  from  Beef  and  Gelatin 


Glycin 

Alanin 

Valin 

Leucin 

Prolin 

Oxyprolin  .... 
Phenylalanin  .  .  . 
Aspartic  acid .  .  . 
Glutamic  acid      .     . 

Serin 

Tyrosin  .... 
Arginin  .... 
Histidin     .... 

Lysin 

Ammonia  .... 
Tr)^tophan    .     . 

Summation 


Beef  PROTEra 


Per  cent 
2.06 
3-72 
0.81 
11.65 
S.82 

3-iS 

4-Si 

1549 

2.20 

747 
1.76 

7-59 

1.07 

present 


67.30 


Gelatin 


Per  cent 

16.S 
0.8 
I.O 

9.2 

10.4 

30 

1.0 

1.2 
16.8 
0.4 
0.0 
7.6 
0.4 
6.0 
0.4 

absent 


73-7 


Among  the  extractives,  creatin  is  most  conspicuous,  con- 
stituting about  0.25  per  cent  of  the  fresh  weight  of  lean  meat 
and  being  ordinarily  the  jnost  abundant  organic  substance 
of  meat  extract.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  properties 
of  meat  extract  are  due  less  to  the  creatin  than  to  the  purins 
and  potash  salts. 

Purins  exist  in  meat  both  "  free  "  (as  in  the  form  of  hypoxan- 
thin,  adenin,  guanin)  and  "  bound  "  as  constituents  of  the 
nucleoproteins.  Hall  has  determined  the  amounts  of  nitrogen 
existing  as  free  and  as  bound  purin  in  some  different  meats  with 
the  results  shown  in  Table  19. 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


203 


Tablk  19.     PuRiNs  m  Different  Meats  (Hall) 


Nitrogen  in  Form  01 

"  Free  "  purins 

"  Bound  "  purins 

Total  purins 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Beef 

0.0460 

0.0070 

0.053 

Veal 

0.0430 

O.OIOO 

0.053         , 

Ham 

0.0398 

0.0064 

0.046 

Chicken 

0.0348 

0.0147 

0.049 

Codfish 

0.0299 

0.0106 

0.040 

Liver  

0.0330 

0.0790 

0.112 

Sweetbread 

0.0420 

0.3510 

0.393 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  purin  nitrogen  is  about 
the  same  for  the  muscular  flesh  of  the  different  kinds,  even 
including  fish,  but  is  much  higher  in  the  liver  and  sweetbread 
on  account  of  the  relatively  large  amount  of  nucleoproteins  in 
the  highly  nucleated  secreting  cells  of  these  organs. 

Ash  constituents  of  meats.  Clear  lean  meat  consisting  es- 
sentially of  muscle  tissue  contains  about  i  per  cent  of  ash; 
clear  fat  has  hardly  any.  The  proportion  of  total  ash  or  of  any 
given  ash  constituent  is  therefore  largely  dependent  upon  the 
fatness  of  the  meat  and  runs  more  or  less  parallel  with  the  per- 
centage of  protein  present.  While  the  ash  constituents  of  the 
muscle  tissue  probably  differ  somewhat  with  different  species 
and  with  the  same  species  at  different  ages,  yet  recent  analyses 
indicate  that  such  differences  are  much  smaller  than  the  usually 
quoted  data  would  indicate.  After  study  of  all  the  data  at 
present  available,  it  seems  best  not  to  assume  any  distinct  and 
constant  differences  in  the  ash  constituents  of  the  lean  tissue 
of  different  animals,  but  to  estimate  that  the  ash  Constituents 
of  meats  in  general  will  be  proportional  to  the  protein  content. 
Average  meat  is  calculated  to  contain  per  100  grams  of  protein 
about  as  follows :  CaO,  0.075  gram  ;  MgO,  0.2  gram ;  K2O,  2.0 


204  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

grams;  Na20,  0.4 gram  ;  P2O5,  2.3  grams;  CI,  0.2  gram;  8,0.9 
gram;  Fe,  0.015  gram. 

In  all  meats  there  is  a  decided  excess  of  the  acid-forming 
over  the  base-forming  elements.  For  equal  degrees  of  fatness, 
the  different  kinds  of  meat  appear  to  be  practically  alike  in  this 
respect. 

Digestibility  of  meat.  Meat  protein  is  usually  digested  quite 
rapidly  and  shows  a  high  percentage  of  absorption  from  the 
digestive  tract,  the  average  "  coefficient  of  digestibility  "  being 
about  the  same  for  the  protein  of  meat,  milk,  and  eggs,  viz.,  97. 
to  98  per  cent.  The  extractives  of  meat  probably  aid  to  some 
extent  the  digestion  of  the  proteins  by  stimulating  the  flow 
of  gastric  juice.  In  a  series  of  seven  experiments  in  which 
extracted  beef  constituted  a  large  part  of  the  diet,  the  average 
coefficient  of  digestibility  of  the  meat  protein  was  92  per  cent. 
This  decreased  digestibility  may  have  been  due  in  part  to  the 
rather  large  amount  of  meat  eaten  (300  grams  per  day),  but 
was  probably  at  least  in  part  attributable  to  the  withdrawal 
of  the  extractives. 

Mendel  and  Fine  have  recently  reported  *  a  series  of  digestion 
experiments  with  dogs  in  which  the  utilization  of  the  protein 
of  extracted  meat  fiber  ranged  from  89.3  to  91.3  per  cent,  while 
that  of  fresh  meat  was  93.7  to  94.5  per  cent,  leading  them  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  utilization  of  the  nitrogen  (protein)  of  the 
extractive-free  meat  powder  "  is  distinctly,  although  slightly, 
lower  than  that  of  fresh  meat." 

The  digestibility  of  the  fat  of  meat  is  influenced  by  the  amount 
eaten  and  its  mechanical  condition,  whether  in  large  or  small 
masses.  In  favorable  circumstances  95  per  cent  or  more  of 
the  fat  of  meat  is  digested  and  utilized. 

The  relative  digestibility  of  meats  as  the  term  is  used  popularly, 
and  in  medical  writings,  is  apt  to  refer  to  the  length  of  time 
that  the  meat  remains  in  the  stomach.     Penzolt  experimented 

1  Journal  oj  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  ii,  pages  $-<)• 


MEATS   AND    MEAT  PRODUCTS  205 

by  feeding  different  articles  of  food  and  after  different  intervals 
withdrawing  the  stomach  contents  by  means  of  a  stomach- 
tube.  From  the  results  of  such  experiments  he  constructed 
a  table  indicating  the  time  which  must  elapse  after  taking  a 
stated  amount  of  a  given  food  until  it  has  entirely  left  the  stomach. 
These  results  are  widely  quoted,  especially  in  books  on  dietetics. 

The  length  of  time  which  meat  remains  in  the  stomach  may 
vary  considerably,  depending  upon  such  factors  as  the  fat  con- 
tent, method  of  cooking,  thoroughness  of  mastication,  etc., 
but  the  ultimate  utilization,  at  least  by  healthy  persons,  is 
much  more  nearly  alike. 

In  a  recent  discussion  of  the  extended  series  of  experiments 
made  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Langworthy  states :  "  There  was  nothing  in  the 
results  of  the  experiments  to  indicate  that  any  one  variety  of 
meat  or  any  one  cut  of  meat  has  any  very  great  advantage 
over  others  in  this  respect." 

Grindiey  found  that  differences  in  the  rate  of  gastric  digestion 
as  between  meats  cooked  in  different  ways,  could  be  detected 
in  artificial  digestion  experiments  when  the  experiments  were 
of  sufficiently  short  duration,  but  practically  disappeared  in 
artificial  experiments  of  longer  duration,  and  in  the  coefficients 
of  digestibility  obtained  in  actual  experiments  with  healthy  men. 

Food  value  of  meat  broths  and  extracts.  The  extractives  of 
meat  are  stimulating,  and  for  this  reason  may  be  useful  additions 
to  the  dietary,  but  they  have  almost  no  food  value.  The  creatin 
and  purins  of  meat  extracts  may  be  oxidized  to  some  extent 
in  the  body,  but  the  energy  derived  from  this  source  is  negligible. 

Meat  broths  may  be  so  prepared  as  to  contain  some  of  the 
coagulable  protein  as  well  as  the  extractives,  but  Grindiey  in 
a  long  series  of  experiments  never  succeeded  in  obtaining  more 
than  13  per  cent  of  the  true  protein  of  the  meat  in  the  broth, 
and  in  the  average  obtained  only  7  per  cent,  so  that  it  is  evident 
that  at  best  the  broths  must  be  of  but  limited  food  value  and 


2o6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

that  the  residual  meat,  even  though  tasteless,  still  retains  by  fat 
the  greatest  part  of  the  food  value. 

Some  so-called  meat  extracts  partake  more  or  less  of  the 
nature  of  condensed  broths,  containing  coagulated  protein 
with  the  extractives,  some  contain  proteoses  or  peptone,  and 
some  are  enriched  with  dried  and  ground  meat.  Preparations 
of  condensed  meat  juice  and  some  consisting  essentially  of 
condensed  blood  are  also  commercially  available.  Many  of 
these  products  are  described  by  Hutchison  in  his  Food  and 
Dietetics,  and  by  Bigelow  and  Cook  in  Bulletin  114  of  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Food  value  of  gelatin.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that 
gelatin  alone  cannot  maintain  protein  equilibrium  in  nutrition. 
It  is,  however,  not  simply  a  "  protein-sparer  "  as  it  was  formerly 
called.  Gelatin  is  a  true  protein,  but  not  "  complete  "  as  a  pro- 
tein food,  the  **  incompleteness  "  of  food  value  being  doubtless 
due  to  the  absence  of  certain  amino-acid  radicles,  conspicu- 
ously tryptophan,  in  the  gelatin  molecule.  If  one  were  to 
depend  very  largely  upon  gelatin  as  food,  it  would  be  impor- 
tant that  some  other  proteins,  such  as  those  of  milk,  rich  in 
the  particular  amino  acids  which  gelatin  lacks,  should  also  be 
represented  in  the  diet. 

Relative  Economy  of  Different  Cuts  of  Meat 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  generalize  in  regard  to  the  relative 
economy  of  the  meats  of  different  species,  because  of  the  wide 
variations  of  price  in  different  localities,  and  because  of  the  dif- 
ferent significance  of  lean  and  fat  meats  as  food. 

It  is,  however,  instructive  to  consider  the  relative  economy  of 
different  cuts  from  the  same  animal,  especially  in  the  case  of 
beef.  This  has  recently  been  studied  in  some  detail  by  Hall 
and  Emmett,^  an  abstract  of  whose  data  and  discussion  follows : 

•  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  158. 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS 


207 


In  the  experiments  at  the  Illinois  station,  three  each  of  choice  and  prime 
steers  from  the  university  herd  were  slaughtered  and  determinations  made 
of :  (i)  the  relative  proportions  of  lean,  visible  fat,  and  bone  in  each  of  the 
retail  and  wholesale  cuts  of  beef ;  (2)  the  chemical  composition  and  nutritive 
value  of  the  boneless  meat  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts;  and  (3)  the  net 
cost  to  the  consumer  of  the  lean,  the  gross  meat,  and  the  food  nutrients  in 
each  cut  at  current  market  prices. 

The  relative  cost  of  the  lean  and  of  the  total  meat  in  the  straight  wholesale 
cuts  at  market  prices  is  shown  in  Table  20. 

Table    20.     Cost   of  Lean  and  of  Total   Meat   in  the   Straight 
Wholesale  Cuts  at  Market  Prices 


Straight  Wholesale  Cuts 


Loin    . 
Rib      .     . 
Round 
Chuck 
Plate  .     . 
Flank  .     . 
Fore  shank 


Wholesale 

Price  per 

Pound  of  Cut 


Cents 

18.5 
15.0 
ii-S 
9-5 
8.0 
8.0 
S-o 


Cost  per 

Pound  of  Lean 

IN  Cut 


Cents 
31.6 
27.1 
17.8 

13-7 
15.8 
22.0 
lo.s 


Cost  per 

Pound  of  Total 

Meat  in  Cut 


Cents 

20.5 

I7-S 

139 

10.8 

8.7 

8.0 

8.4 


The  net  cost  per  pound  of  lean  is,  in  general,  greatest  in  the  cuts  which  com- 
mand the  highest  prices,  and  vice  versa.  The  flank  is  an  exception  to  this 
rule,  and  the  chuck  is  more  economical  in  this  respect  than  the  plate.  Re- 
ferring to  the  last  column,  it  is  also  observed  that  the  more  expensive  the 
cut,  the  greater  the  cost  per  pound  of  visible  fat  and  lean  combined,  the  flank 
being  the  only  exception.  From  these  figures  it  is  apparent  that  food  values 
of  beef  cuts  do  not  correspond  to  their  wholesale  market  prices,  and  that  the 
cheaper  cuts  are  by  far  the  most  economical  sources  of  both  lean  and  fat 
meat.  On  the  whole,  the  difTerent  cuts  vary  more  widely  in  net  cost  of  food 
ingredients  than  in  market  price  per  pound  of  gross  meat.  The  following 
discussion  tends  to  confirm  these  statements. 

The  manner  of  cutting  and  the  location  of  the  dififerent  retail  cuts  are 
shown  in  Fig.  16. 


208 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


H/A/O  QUART^f? 

Rump 

/       fPump 
/?ouoc/;n//7?p  &  s/^a/?^  a/0^ 

3-/3  Pou/yc/^/GaAs.     *• 

/'^     /?oc//7a/s/ea'A,  Asfs/cx/A 

/S     /i?7ucA/e  >soup^/7e. 

M/7e/s/?c!r/7A: 
/7,/i9^oup  Ao/7es. 
/9     //ocAsoup  Sooe. 

2  Wee^e-Ao/7es/r/o/>7  s/isaAr. 
3,4  /?ou/?c/-£)0/7e3/r/d//?s/e'a/r. 
S,6  ^)ou6/e-£>o/?e  ■sz/yo/zp^s/ba'Ar. 
7       Mp-Acy7e  S/r/o//7  sA^^/r. 

3  Mp-Ao/?e par/erAxjse  •s/saA: 
3-/5  /r'e^uAf/-por/ffr/>ousffs;^ea'A: 

P7.y\A//r 

/       /ye^/yps/sa/c. 
2      >5>fe**< 


//^^  <*/?'<*  P>/A  roasA 
S^/'Sr  /O^  P//i>  rvarsA 

GV' P/2^  rot^sA 


rr/S 

/ 

2 

3 

/       S^^  P?/6  rairsA 
2-3  CAucp  sA^efPs. 
/0-/3  PoAyoa^As. 
/4     C/oaA. 
/S     A/ecA-. 

/       Br/sAi^A 
2     •AAat^&P. 
3,4  A?/A?  e/7a(s.. 

A-OP?£-SA/.AAAP' 
/       SAet*'. 

2      AtyTuc/rAG  3oup  A>doe. 
3-^  Soup  ^ozTes. 


Fig.  i6.  —  Retail  cuts  of  beef.     (Hall  and  Emmett.)     Courtesy  of  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station  and  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  209 

Retail  Cuts 

Loin  cuts.  Loin  steaks  averaged  59  per  cent  lean,  32  per  cent  visible  fat, 
and  9  per  cent  bone.  Sirloin  steaks  in  general  contained  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  lean  and  smaller  proportion  of  fat  than  porterhouse  and  club  steaks. 

Rib  cuts.  Rib  roasts  contained,  on  the  average,  55  per  cent  lean,  30  per 
cent  visible  fat,  and  15  per  cent  bone.  The  greatest  percentage  of  lean  was 
found  in  the  sixth  rib  roast,  and  the  smallest  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  rib 
cut. 

Round  cuts.  The  various  cuts  made  from  the  round  averaged  65  per  cent 
lean,  18  per  cent  visible  fat,  and  17  per  cent  bone.  Round  steaks  contained 
74  to  84  per  cent  lean,  the  rump  roast  49  per  cent,  round  pot  roast  85  per  cent, 
and  soup  bones  8  to  66  per  cent.  The  maximum  percentage  of  fat  was  found 
in  the  rump  roast,  and  the  maximum  percentage  of  bone  in  the  hock  soup 
bone. 

Plate  cuts.  The  brisket,  navel,  and  rib  ends  averaged  51  per  cent  lean, 
41  per  cent  fat,  and  8  per  cent  bone.  The  brisket  and  navel  were  similar  in 
proportions  of  the  different  constituents,  but  the  rib  ends  were  slightly  higher 
in  percentage  of  bone  and  lower  in  lean. 

Flank  cuts.  The  flank  steak  contained  83  per  cent  lean  and  16  per  cent 
fat;  and  the  flank  stew,  64  per  cent  lean  and  35  per  cent  fat. 

Fore  shank  cuts.  Soup  bones  from  the  fore  shank  varied  from  17  to  69  per 
cent  lean  and  from  25  to  75  per  cent  bone.  The  boneless  shank  stew  con- 
tained 83  per  cent  lean  and  1 7  per  cent  visible  fat. 

Retail  trimmings.  Trimming  the  loin  steaks  reduced  their  weight  12  per 
cent,  and  the  trimmings  were  about  four  fifths  fat  and  one  fifth  bone. 
Round  and  chuck  steaks  were  reduced  but  5  per  cent  in  weight  by  trimming, 
only  fat  being  taken  from  the  former  as  a  rule  and  principally  bone  from  the 
latter.  Other  cuts  that  were  materially  affected  by  cutting  off  surplus  fat 
and  bone  were  the  rump,  shoulder  pot  roast,  and  neck. 

Relative  Economy  of  the  Various  Retail  Cuts 

From  the  proportions  of  lean,  fat,  and  bone  in  the  different  cuts,  their  rela- 
tive economy  at  retail  market  prices  may  be  determined.  The  net  cost  of 
lean  meat  is  an  approximate  index  of  the  relative  economy  of  steaks  and 
roasts,  since  they  are  purchased  and  used  primarily  for  the  lean  they  contain ; 
but  in  comparing  boiling,  stewing,  and  similar  meats  the  cost  of  gross  meat,  or 
fat  and  lean  combined,  should  be  more  largely  considered,  because  the  fat  is 
more  completely  utilized,  as  in  the  case  of  meat  loaf,  hash.  Hamburger,  and 
corned  beef.     Soup  bones,  being  valued  for  flavoring  matter  as  well  as  for  the 


2IO  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

nutritive  substance  they  contain,  are  more  difficult  to  compare  with  other 
cuts  in  respect  to  relative  economy.  They  vary  materially,  however,  in 
proportions  of  edible  meat  and  waste,  and  should  therefore  be  studied  in  this 
connection. 

The  following  table  (Table  21)  shows  the  cost  of  lean  and  of  total  meat  in 
the  various  retail  cuts  at  market  prices. 

Taking  the  net  cost  of  the  lean  meat  as  a  basis  of  comparison,  we  learn  from 
these  data  that  the  most  expensive  steaks  at  the  prices  given  are  the  porter- 
house cuts,  followed  by  the  club,  sirloin,  flank,  round,  and  chuck  steaks.  Of 
the  different  roasts,  the  first-cut  prime  ribs  are  the  most  costly  in  terms  of 
lean  meat,  and  the  rump  roast  is  the  most  economical.  The  various  boiling 
and  stewing  pieces  furnish  lean  meat  more  economically  at  market  prices 
than  either  the  roasts  or  steaks,  the  rib  ends  and  brisket  being  the  dearer  cuts 
of  this  class,  while  the  neck  and  shank  stews  are  relatively  cheapest.  Several 
of  the  soup  bones  are  very  economical  sources  of  lean  meat,  particularly  the 
middle  cuts  of  both  shanks,  and  only  one  of  them  is  extremely  expensive  even 
on  this  basis.  In  general  the  wide  variation  between  the  various  cuts  in  net 
cost  of  lean  is  remarkable,  ranging  from  7.5  cents  in  one  of  the  soup  bones 
to  40.5  cents  in  a  prime  rib  roast,  and  up  to  62.5  cents  in  the  hock  soup  bone, 
the  latter,  however,  being  used  primarily  for  its  flavoring  substance  rather 
than  for  lean  meat.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  the  market  prices  of  the 
cheaper  cuts  correspond  much  more  closely  to  their  net  cost  of  lean  meat 
than  is  true  of  the  higher-priced  steaks  and  roasts. 

The  net  cost  per  pound  of  gross  meat,  or  lean  and  fat  combined,  varies  much 
less  as  between  the  different  cuts  than  does  the  net  cost  per  pound  of  lean, 
because  the  proportions  of  total  meat  are  more  nearly  uniform  than  the  per- 
centages of  lean.  The  various  steaks  and  roasts  rank  in  substantially  the 
same  order  as  to  relative  economy  on  this  basis  as  on  the  basis  of  lean  meat. 
The  rib  roasts,  however,  are  considerably  more  economical  as  compared  with 
the  porterhouse  and  sirloin  steaks  when  all  the  edible  meat  is  considered. 
The  rump  shows  a  very  low  cost  per  pound  of  edible  meat,  due  to  the  large 
proportion  of  fat  it  contains ;  and  a  still  further  difference  is  noticed  in  the 
case  of  the  rib  ends,  brisket,  navel,  flank,  neck,  and  several  of  the  soup-bone 
cuts.  The  stewing  meats  are  generally  the  most  economical  sources  of 
edible  meat  at  these  prices,  while  porterhouse  steaks  are  the  most  expensive. 

On  the  whole,  the  data  clearly  show  that  the  cheaper  cuts  of  beef  are  by  far 
the  most  economical  sources  both  of  lean  and  of  total  edible  meat,  including 
fat  and  lean.  .  .  .  No  correlation  exists  between  market  prices  and  the  pro- 
portion of  flavoring  substances  contained  in  various  portions  of  the  carcass, 
and  cooking  tests  indicate  that  the  proportion  of  waste  and  shrinkage  is  not 
necessarily  greater  in  the  cheaper  than  in  the  more  expensive  cuts.     It  is 


MEATS   AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS 


211 


Table  21. 


Cost  of  Lean  and  of  Total  Meat  in  the  Various 
Retail  Cuts  at  Market  Prices 


Retail  Cuts 

Diagram 

Number 
(Fig.  16) 

Retail 

Price  per 

Pound  of 

Cut 

Cost  per 

Pound  of 

Lean  Meat 

IN  Cut 

Cost  per 
Pound  of 
Lean  and 
Fat  Meat 
IN  Cut 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Steaks : 

Porterhouse,  hip  bone     .     . 

8 

25 

38.6 

28.9 

Porterhouse,  regular  .     .     . 

10 

25 

40.2 

27.2 

Club  steak 

18 

20 

32.1 

22.6 

Sirloin,  butt  end    .     .     .     . 

I 

20 

25-3 

20.6 

Sirloin,  round  bone     .     .     . 

3 

20 

28.3 

21. 1 

Sirloin,  double  bone   .     .     . 

S 

20 

28.7 

22.7 

Sirloin,  hip  bone    .     .     .     . 

7 

20 

32-3 

24.2 

Flank  steak 

I 

16 

19-3 

16.0 

Round,  first  cut     .     .     .     . 

2 

15 

17.0 

^S-3 

Round,  middle  cut     .     .     . 

6 

15 

17-3 

15-6 

Round,  last  cut     .     .     .     . 

14 

15 

19-3 

16.0 

Chuck,  first  cut     .     .     .     . 

2 

12 

18.3 

14.1 

Chuck,  last  cut      .     .     .     . 

9 

12 

iS-7 

I3-I 

Roasts: 

Prime  ribs,  first  cut   . 

I 

20 

.40-5 

22.9 

Prime  ribs,  last  cut    . 

4 

16 

26.1 

18.8 

Chuck,  fifth  rib      .     .     .     . 

I 

15 

22.8 

17-3 

Rump 

I 

12 

19.4 

12.8 

Boiling  and  stewing  pieces  : 

Round  pot  roast    .... 

16 

ID 

11.6 

lO.I 

Shoulder  clod 

14 

10 

12.3 

IO-5 

Shoulder  pot  roast      .     .     . 

II 

10 

14-3 

11.6 

Rib  ends       

3 

8 

16.2 

9.2 

Brisket 

I 

8 

15.0 

8.7 

Navel 

2 

7 

12.8 

7-7 

Flank  stew 

2 

7 

10.9 

7-1 

Fore  shank  stew    .... 

I 

7 

8.5 

7.0 

Neck 

IS 

6 

8.5 

7.0 

Soup  bones 

Round,  knuckle     .... 

2 

5 

26.3 

12.5 

Hind  shank,  middle  cut  . 

18 

5 

7-5 

6.3 

Hind  shank,  hock 

19 

5 

62.5 

26.6 

Fore  shank,  knuckle  .     .     . 

2 

5 

17.2 

12.S 

Fore  shank,  middle  cut  .     . 

4 

5 

12.5 

9.4 

Fore  shank,  end     .... 

6 

5 

28.8 

20.9 

212  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

evident,  therefore,  that  retail  prices  of  beef  cuts  are  determined  chiefly  by 
considerations  other  than  their  food  value,  such  as  tenderness,  grain,  color, 
general  appearance,  and  convenience  of  cooking.  ...  To  such  an  extreme 
has  this  condition  developed  that  a  portion  of  the  carcass  (loins  and  ribs), 
forming  only  about  one  fourth  of  its  weight,  represents  nearly  one  half  of  its 
retail  cost.  In  view  of  the  large  place  which  meat  occupies  in  the  American 
diet,  amounting  to  nearly  one  third  of  the  average  expenditure  for  all  food, 
the  importance  of  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  subject  on  the  part  of 
the  consumer  is  readily  apparent. 

Not  only  are  the  foregoing  statements  true  of  meat  producers  and  con- 
sumers as  individuals,  but  it  is  highly  essential  to  the  entire  beef-cattle 
industry,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  economic  welfare  of  the  beef-eating  public, 
on  the  other,  that  a  more  intelligent  understanding  of  the  different  cuts  of 
meat  be  acquired  by  consumers  generally.  An  increased  demand  for  those 
portions  of  the  carcass  which  are  now  difficult  for  the  butcher  to  dispose  of 
would  contribute  largely  toward  a  more  stable  condition  of  the  trade  and  thus 
enable  the  producer  to  operate  with  greater  confidence  and  economy.  At 
the  same  time  it  would  effect  a  tremendous  saving  to  the  consumer.  .  .  . 
There  seems  to  be  no  relation  between  market  prices  and  the  percentages  of 
fat,  protein,  extractives,  and  ash.  The  cheaper  cuts  appear  to  be  as  valuable 
and  in  some  cases  actually  more  so  than  the  higher  priced  cuts  from  the  stand- 
point of  protein  and  of  energy.  These  statements  do  not  take  into  account 
the  factors  of  tenderness  nor  the  influence  the  degree  of  fatness  may  have 
upon  the  palatability  of  cooked  meat.  In  purchasing  meat  for  protein 
primarily,  the  neck,  shanks,  and  clod  are  the  most  economical  cuts;  the 
plate,  chuck,  flank,  and  round  follow ;  with  the  rump,  rib,  and  loin  as  the 
most  expensive.  From  the  standpoint  of  fuel  value,  the  flank,  plate,  neck, 
and  shank  cuts  are  the  cheapest,  while  the  rib,  loin,  and  round  are  the  most 
expensive.  Considering  both  factors,  protein  and  fuel  value,  and  along  with 
these  the  adaptability  of  the  meat  for  general  use  the  clod,  chuck,  and  plate 
are  the  most  economical  cuts  at  the  retail  prices  given. 

Place  of  Meat  in  the  Diet 

Authorities  seem  to  agree  in  the  estimate  that  in  the  United 
States  about  one  third  of  the  total  expenditure  for  food  materials 
is  for  meat. 

Roberts  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
using  data  from  the  census  of  1900,  estimated  the  yearly  per 
capita  consumption  of  meat  in  this  country  as  follows : 


MEATS  AND   MEAT  PRODUCTS  213 

Pounds 

Beef 78.71 

Veal 3.35 

Pork  (including  hams  and  bacon) 88.12 

Mutton  and  lamb 8.57 

Total  meat  per  capita 178.75 

The  total  meat  consumption  per  capita  for  several  of  the 
European  countries  as  estimated  for  the  same  year  by  Rew  of 
the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  England,  as  quoted  by  Roberts, 
was: 

Pounds 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 122 

Germany 99 

France 80 

Sweden  and  Norway 62 

Denmark 76 

Belgium 70 

That  the  per  capita  consumption  of  meat  in  the  United  States 
is  almost  half  as  high  again  as  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  fully 
twice  as  high  as  on  the  continent  of  Europe  is  perhaps  not 
generally  known,  and  is  certainly  a  very  significant  fact  worthy 
of  more  attention  than  it  has  yet  received. 

What  are  the  reasons  for  the  exceptionally  high  rate  of  meat 
consumption  in  America,  and  is  this  departure  from  the  practice 
of  the  older  countries  an  improvement  ? 

The  flavor  of  meat  is  well  liked  by  most  people,  its  extractives 
certainly  stimulate  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices  and  probably 
have  some  stimulating  action  upon  the  body  generally.  Meat  is 
a  food  quickly  cooked  and  (in  general)  readily  digested,  and  tra- 
dition (both  popular  and  scientific)  associates  meat-eating  with 
muscular  stamina,  vigor,  and  initiative,  with  success  in  the  chase 
in  earlier  days  and  in  more  recent  generations  with  success  and 
prosperity  generally.  With  this  attitude  toward  meat  as  a  food, 
Europeans  coming  to  America  and  finding  here  a  more  abundant 
supply  of  meat  than  that  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed, 
have  naturally  made  meat  a  larger  part  of  their  diet  than  it  was 


214  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

or  is  in  the  countries  from  which  they  came.  So  long  as  game 
was  abundant,  pasturage  unhmited,  and  a  relatively  small 
proportion  of  the  land  was  under  systematic  cultivation,  meat 
was  cheap  as  compared  with  other  foods.  Now  that  game  has 
become  a  negligible  factor  in  the  food  supply,  and  there  is  no 
longer  free  pasturage,  the  production  of  meat  involves  feeding 
the  animals  with  farm  crops,  especially  grain.  Since  only  a 
fraction  of  the  nutrients  of  the  grain  is  converted  into,  and 
retained  as,  body  material  by  the  animal,  and  scarcely  half  the 
total  body  weight  of  the  animal  is  utilized  as  food  for  man,  it 
is  evident  that  the  meat  will  be  a  much  more  costly  food  than, 
for  instance,  the  grain  which  if  not  fed  to  the  animal  might  have 
been  utilized  directly  as  human  food.  In  the  nature  of  the  case, 
meat  must  always  be  an  expensive  food  wherever  frontier  con- 
ditions have  ceased  to  exist.  Thus  the  purely  economic  ground 
for  a  high  per  capita  consumption  of  meat  in  the  United  States 
is  no  longer  tenable.  Is  it  probable  that  the  eating  of  such  a 
large  amount  of  meat  is  physiologically  advantageous  ? 

For  people  whose  occupations  are  largely  sedentary  or  at 
any  rate  do  not  involve  much  vigorous  muscular  exercise,  a  too 
liberal  use  Of  meat  may  bring  on  uric  acid  disorders'  or  may 
result  in  excessive  intestinal  putrefaction.  The  purin  substances 
which  give  rise  to  uric  acid  in  the  body  are  much  more  abundant 
in  meats  than  in  other  staple  foods,  and  it  seems  also  well  estab- 
lished that  meat  proteins  are  more  susceptible  to  putrefaction 
in  the  intestine,  giving  rise  to  absorption  of  putrefactive  products 
which  are  more  or  less  injurious  ("  autointoxication  "),  than  are 
the  proteins  of  most  other  foods.  Thus  the  two  chief  objections 
to  a  high-protein  diet  are  more  applicable  to  meat  than  to  other 
high-protein  foods.  Another  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that 
the  meats  contain  a  large  excess  of  acid-forming  over  base- 
forming  elements.  In  a  mixed  diet  containing  a  limited  amount 
of  meat  this  is  easily  offset  by  foods  in  which  the  base-forming 
elements  predominate,  but  when  the  amount  of  meat  eaten  is 


MEATS  AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  215 

too  large,  there  may  result  an  excessive  preponderance  of  acid- 
forming  elements  in  the  diet  as  a  whole.  This  subject,  as  well 
as  that  of  intestinal  putrefaction,  will  be  referred  to  again  in  the 
discussion  of  the  place  of  vegetables  in  the  diet  (Chapter  IX). 

It  is  difficult  to  balance  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
meat  as  a  food  and  to  reach  a  confident  conclusion  as  to  just 
how  prominent  a  place  it  should  have  in  the  diet,  both  because 
so  many  factors  enter  into  the  problem  and  because  so  many 
of  those  who  have  studied  the  subject  and  published  their  con- 
clusions appear  to  have  been  more  or  less  influenced  by  contro- 
versial bias  engendered  by  the  vegetarian  propaganda.  The 
following  quotation  from  Tigerstedt  represents  an  opinion  which 
seems  neither  radical  nor  reactionary. 

"  From  a  purely  physiological  point  of  view,  we  can  find  no 
reason  why  a  healthy  man  should  forego  the  use  of  so  excellent 
an  article  of  food,  considered  with  respect  to  its  content  of 
protein  and  fat,  or  its  eminent  adaptability,  as  we  know  meat  to 
be.  But  in  so  stating,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  saying 
that  one  should  eat  any  quantity  of  meat  he  pleases,  or  should 
cover  too  much  of  his  requirements  with  meat.  In  too  large 
quantities  the  extractive  substances  found  in  meat  may  possibly 
produce  disorders  of  one  kind  or  another  in  the  body.  The 
metabolism  might  also  take  an  abnormal  or  unfavorable  form, 
if  the  fluids  of  the  body  were  flooded  with  too  much  protein." 
This  moderate  and  conservative  warning  against  too  free  a  use 
of  meat  as  food  was  written,  it  is  important  to  remember,  in 
a  Scandanavian  textbook  and  was  therefore  addressed  to  those 
whose  average  rate  of  meat  consumption  was  less  than  half 
as  much  as  ours. 

On  the  whole,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  both  from  such 
general  considerations  as  have  just  been  suggested  and  from  the 
results  of  statistical  and  experimental  studies  too  detailed  for 
discussion  here,  that  a  reduction  of  our  meat  consumption  to 
something  like  half  the  present  amount  (i.e.  to  about  what  has 


2l6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

been  reached  through  the  longer  experience  of  the  European 
nations)  is  desirable  on  both  economic  and  physiological  grounds. 
When  one  sixth  instead  of  one  third  of  the  total  expenditure 
for  food  is  for  meats,  the  dietary  is  usually  both  more  economical 
and  better  balanced. 

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Packing  Houses.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  26th  Annual  Report,  pages  247-264  (1909). 

Richardson  and  Scherubel.  Deterioration  and  Commercial  Preserva- 
tion of  Flesh  Foods,  II.  The  Storage  of  Beef  at  Temperatures  above 
the  Freezing  Point.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 
Vol.  I,  pages  95-102  (1909). 

Beck.  Assimilation  of  Blood  as  Food.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der 
Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  20,  pages  455-463  (1910). 

Cook.  A  Comparison  of  Beef  and  Yeast  Extracts  of  Known  Origin.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Circular  62 
(1910). 


2l8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Imabuchi.  Nutritive  Value  of  Blood  Proteins.  Zeitschrift  fiir  physiolo- 
gische  Chcmie,  Vol.  64,  pages  1-9  (1910). 

Wagner  and  Clement.  Composition  of  Soup  Tablets.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Unter- 
suchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  18,  pages  314-319  (1910). 

Buxton.  Some  Postmortem  Alterations  of  Meat.  Journal  Royal  Institute 
of  Public  Health,  Vol.  19,  pages  460-469  (191 1). 

Hall.  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat.  Illinois  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  147  (191 1). 

McBride.  Commercial  Methods  of  Canning  Meats.  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1911,  383-390  (1911). 

Thompson,  Caldwell,  and  Wallace.  Nutritive  Effects  of  Beef  Extract. 
British  Medical  Journal,  191 1,  II,  pages  613-619  (191 1). 

Voltz  and  Baudrexel.  Meat  Extracts  in  Digestion  and  Metabolism. 
Archiv  fiir  die  gesamte  Physiologic  (Pfluger),  Vol.  138,  pages  275-291 
(1911). 

Bennett.  The  Purins  of  Muscle.  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry, 
Vol.  II,  pages  221-234  (1912). 

Bitting.  The  Canning  of  Foods.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  151  (1912). 

BuGGE  and  Kiebig.  The  Bacterial  Content  of  the  Flesh  of  Normal 
Beeves.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Fleisch  und  Milch  Hygiene,  Vol.  22,  pages 
69-80  (191 2). 

Hall  and  Emmett.  Relative  Economy,  Composition  and  Nutritive  Value 
of  the  Various  Cuts  of  Beef.  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  158  (191 2). 

RuDNiCK.  The  Chemist  in  the  Service  of  the  Packing-House.  Original 
Communications,  8th  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 
Vol.  18,  pages  309-312  (191 2). 

Thiele.  The  Manufacture  of  Gelatin.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engi- 
neering Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages  446-451  (191 2). 

Wright.  Chemical  and  Bacteriological  Study  of  Fresh  and  Frozen  New 
Zealand  Lamb  and  Mutton.  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  In- 
dustry, Vol.  31,  pages  965-967  (191 2). 

Mendel  and  Fine.  Utilization  of  Protein  of  Extractive-free  Meat  Powder. 
Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  11,  pages  5-26  (1912). 

MiJLLER.  Meart  Poisoning  with  Relation  to  Intravital  and  Postmortem  In- 
fection of  the  Meat.  Centralblatt  fiir  Bakteriologie  und  Parasiten- 
kunde,  i  Abtheil,  Vol.  6,  pages  222-240  (191 2). 

SiEWERT  and  Zebrowski.  The  Comparative  Effect  of  Light  and  Dark 
Meat  upon  the  Excretion  of  Uric  Acid.  Zeitschrift  fiir  klinische  Medi- 
zin,  Vol.  75,  pages  331-358  (191 2). 


MEATS   AND   MEAT   PRODUCTS  219 

Cook.  Bouillon  Cubes :  Their  Contents  and  Food  Value  Compared  with 
Meat  Extracts  and  Home-made  Preparations  of  Meat.  Bulletin  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  No.  27  (1913). 

Feder.  a  Basis  for  Detecting  the  Excessive  Addition  of  Water  to  Chopped 
Meat  Products.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Ge- 
nussmittel,  Vol.  25,  pages  577-588  (1913). 

Langworthy  and  Hunt.  Mutton  and  its  Value  in  the  Diet.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  526  (1913). 

MouLTON.  Changes  in  Composition  of  Mature  Beef  Animals  during  Fat- 
tening. Proceedings  8th  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 
Vol.  26,  pages  157-168  (1913). 

Ottolenghi.  Studies  of  the  Ripening  and  Decomposition  of  Meat.  Zeit- 
schrift fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  26, 
pages  728-758  (1913)- 

Wright.  Chemistry  in  Relation  to  the  Frozen  Meat  Industry  of  New 
Zealand.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  5, 
pages  673-674  (1913)- 

Weinzirl  and  Newton.  Bacteriological  Analyses  of  Hamburg  Steak  with 
Reference  to  Sanitary  Standards.  American  Journal  of  Public  Health, 
Vol.  4,  pages  413-417  (1914)- 


CHAPTER  VII 

POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH 

Poultry,  game,  fish  and  shellfish  belong  in  their  essential 
characteristics  with  the  meat  foods  discussed  in  the  last  chapter. 
They  are  treated  separately  here,  not  so  much  in  deference  to 
the  traditional  distinction  between  flesh,  fish,  and  fowl  as  be- 
cause the  products  now  to  be  considered  are  usually  not  classed 
as  belonging  to  the  slaughter  house  industry  and  do  not  come 
under  the  provisions  of  the  meat  inspection  law. 

Poultry 

The  value  of  poultry  produced  in  the  United  States  is  esti- 
mated by  the  Census  Bureau  at  somewhat  over  $200,000,000 
annually  (for  the  year  1909,  $202,506,272).  We  have  already 
seen  (Chapter  V)  that  the  poultry  and  egg  industry  is  widely 
distributed  in  the  United  States.  The  total  number  of  farms 
which  reported  fowls  on  hand  April  15, 1910,  was  5,585,032  and 
the  number  of  fowls  reported  was  295,880,000. 

Much  of  the  poultry  now  offered  for  sale  is  produced  hundreds 
of  miles  from  its  market.  The  transportation  of  live  poultry 
presents  numerous  problems  most  of  which  lie  outside  the  scope 
of  this  book.  The  shipping  and  handling  of  poultry  killed  at 
a  distance  from  market  involves  obvious  possibilities  of  deteriora- 
tion. That  such  deterioration  may  be  avoided,  the  methods  of 
dressing  poultry  and  of  maintaining  efficient  refrigeration  in 
transit  and  while  awaiting  sale  have  been  studied  in  some  detail 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  discussed 
in  a  series  of  bulletins  and  other  articles  the  titles  of  which  may 
be  found  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,  AND   SHELLFISH  221 

The  practice  recommended  by  Pennington  is  to  bring  the 
fowl  into  good  condition  by  feeding  clean  grain  mixed  with 
buttermilk  for  from  seven  to  fourteen  days,  then  starve  them 
for  24  hours  in  order  that  the  intestinal  tract  may  be  as  nearly 
empty  as  possible,  and  kill  by  cutting  the  jugular  vein;  then  that 
part  of  the  brain  which  controls  the  muscles  holding  the  feathers 
in  place  is  destroyed  by  a  thrust  of  the  knife,  and  the  feathers 
are  so  loosened  that  they  are  easily  pulled  out.  The  cutting  of 
the  blood  vessels  in  the  proper  way  permits  the  blood  to  drain 
out  of  the  carcass  almost  completely  and  the  keeping  quality 
is  thus  improved.  After  removal  of  feathers,  and  without 
removal  of  the  entrails,  the  fowls  should  be  hung  by  the  feet 
on  racks  made  entirely  of  metal  and  chilled  by  placing  in  rooms 
in  which  a  temperature  of  about  32°  F.  is  constantly  maintained 
by  means  of  mechanical  refrigeration.  Below  30°  F.  the  flesh 
would  become  "  frosted  "  ;  above  35°  F.  deterioration  proceeds 
too  rapidly  to  permit  of  long  hauls  to  distant  markets  and  the 
subsequent  delays  involved  in  the  usual  routine  of  city  market- 
ing. At  32°  F.  the  time  required  for  chilling  is  usually  about 
24  hours.  The  carcasses  are  then  graded  and  packed,  pref- 
erably in  boxes  holding  12  fowls  each.  The  boxes  should  be 
lined  with  parchment  paper  and  sometimes  each  fowl  is  wrapped 
separately.  Separate  cartons  are  sometimes  used  for  extra 
high  grade  poultry.  The  packed  poultry  is  shipped  in  refrigera- 
tor cars,  either  chilled  or  hard  frozen.  A  refrigerator  car  as 
ordinarily  loaded  in  the  West  contains  20,000  pounds  of  poultry. 
Bunkers  filled  with  ice  and  salt  maintain  the  low  temperature 
of  the  car  and  its  contents  during  transit. 

Chemical  analyses  indicate  that  even  when  well  handled  and 
dry  packed,  the  condition  of  dressed  poultry  after  transportation 
varies  appreciably  with  the  differences  in  car  temperatures 
ordinarily  met.  The  best  evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  de- 
velopment of  ammonia  as  indicated  in  Fig.  17,  which  shows  the 
percentages  of  ammoniacal  nitrogen  in  the  flesh  of  fowls  other- 


222 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


wise  comparable  which  had  been  transported  at  different  tem- 
peratures. The  difference  thus  shown  at  the  end  of  the  rail- 
road haul  tends  to  continue  and  become  greater  throughout 


F/?£SH  C/f/C/C£A/ 


Fig.  17.  —  Deterioration  of  poultry  in  transit  at  different  temperatures. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


the  period  that  the  fowls  remain  at  the  wholesale  commission 
house  or  in  the  hands  of  the  retailer,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  18,  which, 
like  Fig.  17,  is  taken  from  the  bulletin  by  Pennington,  Greenlee, 
et  al. 

Preservation  is  of  course  much  more  perfect  when  the  fowls 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND    SHELLFISH 


223 


are  kept  hard  frozen  and  delivered  to  the  consumer  without 
thawing.  The  common  practice  of  thawing  frozen  poultry 
before  exposing  it  for  sale  is  objectionable  in  that  it  introduces 
an  opportunity  for  deterioration  which  is  quite  unnecessary, 

ao/ea 


H^H  HfGH  TEMPCRATUffE  SH/PMEA/TS. 


0.0/60 


0.0/4/ 


0.0/20 

1 


00/43 


0.0/S4 


0.0/44 
V7 


SA/^PLEA/9/  SA/^PCEA/92  SA/^PLEA/P3 

END  OF  HAUL.         AT  iVHOLES ACER'S       AT R£TA/LER''S 

AFTER  .^  laArs. 


0.0/ 58 


i 

i 


SA/^PL£A/94 
ATRETA/LER^ 
./'lETERyOArS. 


Fig.  18. 


■  Deterioration  of  poultry  during  marketing  period  as  affected  by 
temperature.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


and  would  be  avoided  if  consumers  would  learn  to  demand 
that  the  poultry  be  delivered  to  them  in  a  solidly  frozen 
condition. 

The  general  composition  of  poultry  is  shown  in  the  following 
table  based  on  the  data  compiled  by  Atwater  and  Bryant. 


224  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Table  22.    Average  Composition  of  Poultry 


Description 


Chicken,  broilers : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Fowls : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Goose,  young : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Turkey : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Chicken    gizzard,    as    pur- 
chased    

Chicken  heart,  as  purchased 
Chicken  liver,  as  purchased 

Goose  gizzard 

Goose  liver,  as  purchased     . 


Per 
cent 


41.6 


25-9 


17.6 


22.7 


Per 
cent 


74.8 
43-7 

63-7 
47.1 

46.7 
38.5 

55-5 
42.4 

72.5 
72.0 

693 
73-8 
62.6 


Protein 


Per 
cent 


21-5 
12.8 

19-3 
13-7 

16.3 
13-4 

21. 1 
16.1 

24.7 
20.7 
22.4 
19.6 
16.6 


?3  o 


cent 


21.6 
12.6 

ig.o 
14.0 

16.3 
13-4 

20.6 
15-7 

24.7 
21.1 

19.4 


Per 
cent 


2-5 
1.4 

16.3 
12.3 

36.2 
29.8 

22.9 
18.4 

1.4 

s-s 
4.2 

5-8 
15-9 


Per 

cent 


Per 

cent 


|g 


Cal. 


492 
289 

1016 
751 

1774 
1460 

1318 
1043 

50s 
600 
621 

593 
1018 


The  nature  of  the  nutrients  is,  so  far  as  known,  not  different 
in  any  important  respect  from  that  of  other  meats.  The  chemi- 
cal nature  of  the  protein  as  shown  by  its  products  of  hydrolysis 
has  been  studied  in  comparison  with  the  flesh  of  widely  dif- 
ferent species  by  Osborne,  whose  results  are  tabulated  farther 
on  in  this  chapter.     (Table  26.) 

The  light  meat,  such  as  breast,  is  composed  of  more  tender 
fibers  less  firmly  held  together  by  connective  tissue  than  is  the 
dark  meat,  such  as  the  leg  muscle.  Usually  also  the  light  meat 
contains  less  fat.  For  both  these  reasons  it  is  apt  to  be  somewhat 
more  rapidly  digested,  at  least  in  the  stomach,  and  is  therefore 
preferable  for  people  having  weak  digestion.     The  impression 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  225 

that  light  meat  furnishes  less  of  the  substances  which  give  rise 
to  uric  acid  in  the  body  does  not  seem  to  have  been  confirmed. 
Neither  have  we  any  evidence  that  the  ash  constituents  differ 
in  any  important  degree  either  as  between  light  and  dark  meat 
or  as  between  chicken  meat  and  that  of  other  animals. 

Game 

Formerly  game  was  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  United 
States  and  played  a  large  part  in  the  diet  of  the  people 
generally.  Now  the  amount  of  game  is  so  diminished  and  its 
sale  is  so  restricted  that  it  has  become  a  negligible  factor  in  the 
food  supply,  and  need  not  be  considered  here  further  than  to 
point  out  that  the  flesh  of  game  animals  and  game  birds  does 
not  differ  in  nutritive  value  to  any  important  degree  from  the 
meats  and  poultry  already  considered. 

Fish 

The  fish  products  of  the  United  States  as  they  leave  the  hands 
of  the  fishermen  are  estimated  by  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  to 
approximate  2,169,000,000  pounds  in  weight,  and  $58,000,000 
in  value  annually.  The  total  sum  paid  by  consumers  is  of 
course  much  larger  than  that  received  by  the  fishermen. 

Fish  to  be  sold  "  fresh  "  may  be  sent  directly  to  market  or  may 
be  kept  in  cold  storage  either  chilled  to  ice  temperature  or  hard 
frozen.  Recent  experiments  begun  by  C.  S.  Smith  and  con- 
tinued by  Perlzweig  and  Gies  indicate  that  fresh  fish  may  be 
preserved  frozen,  by  the  best  cold  storage  processes,  for  at  least 
two  years  without  undergoing  any  important  change. 

The  American  analyses  of  the  commercially  important  kinds 
of  fresh  fish  are  shown  in  Table  23. 


226 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  23.    Average  Composition  of  Fish 


Protein 

01 

ai 

< 

s 

1 

^1 

Desckiption 

•0 

Is 

h 

(H 

^ 

X 

5? 

y 

0 

I 

U 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cal. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

FISH,   FRESH 

Alewife,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

2 

— 

74-4 

19.4 

19.2 

4.9 

— 

1-5 

552 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

49-5 

37-6 

9.8 

9-7 

2.4 

— 

.8 

276 

Bass,  black,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

2 

— 

76.7 

20.6 

20.4 

1-7 

— 

1.2 

448 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

54-8 

34-6 

9-3 

9-3 

.8 

— 

•5 

201 

Bass,  red,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

I 

— 

81.6 

16.9 

16.7 

•5 

— 

1.2 

327 

As  purchased      .... 

I 

63.5 

29.8 

6.2 

6.1 

.2 

— 

•4 

121 

Bass,  sea,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

I 

— 

79-3 

19.8 

18.8 

•5 

— 

1.4 

380 

As  purchased      .... 

I 

56.1 

34.8 

8.7 

8.3 

.2 

— 

.6 

166 

Bass,  striped,  whole,  edible 

portion 

6 

^ 

77-7 

18.6 

18.3 

2.8 

— 

1.2 

452 

Bass,    striped,    entrails    re- 

moved, as  purchased    . 

I 

51-2 

37-4 

8.8 

8.7 

2.2 

— 

•S 

249 

Blackfish,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

4 

— 

79.1 

18.7 

18.5 

1-3 

— 

I.I 

393 

As  purchased      .... 

2 

60.2 

314 

7-4 

7-3 

•7 

— 

.4 

163 

Blackfish,  entrails  removed, 

as  purchased  .... 

2 

55-7 

35-0 

8.4 

8.3 

•S 

— 

•5 

173 

Bluefish,  entrails  removed : 

Edible  portion    .... 

— 

78.S 

19.4 

19.0 

1.2 

— 

1-3 

401 

As  purchased      .... 

48.6 

40.3 

1 0.0 

9.8 

.6 

— 

•7 

206 

Buffalo     fish,    entrails    re- 

moved : 

Edible  portion    .... 

— 

78.6 

18.0 

17.9 

2.3 

— 

1.2 

430 

As  purchased      .... 

52.5 

37-3 

8.5 

S.5 

I.I 

— 

.6 

20s 

Butter-fish,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

— 

70.0 

18.0 

17.8 

II.O 

— 

1.2 

776 

As  purchased      .... 

42.8 

40.1 

10.3 

10.2 

6.3 

— 

.6 

444 

Catfish : 

Edible  portion    .... 

— 

64.1 

14.4 

14.4 

20.6 

— 

•9 

1102 

As  purchased      .... 

19.4 

Si-7 

11.6 

11.6 

16.6 

— 

•7 

888 

POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH 


227 


Table  23.     Average  Composition  of  Fish  —  Continued 


Description 


fish,  fresh 

Cod,  dressed,  as  purchased 
Cod,  sections,  edible  portion 
Cod,  steaks : 

Edible  portion    .     .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 
Cusk,  entrails  removed : 

Edible  portion    .     .     ,     . 

As  purchased      .     .     .     . 
Eels,  salt  water,  head,  skin, 
and  entrails  removed : 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      ... 
Flounder,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      ... 
Flounder,  entrails  removed 

as  purchased        .     . 
Haddock,  entrails  removed 

Edible  portion    ... 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Hake,  entrails  removed : 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Halibut,  steaks  or  sections 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Herring,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Mackerel,  whole: 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      .... 

Mackerel,  entrails  removed 

as  purchased  .     .     . 


Per 
cent 


29.9 


9.2 


40.3 


61.S 
S7-0 

51.0 

52.5 
17.7 
42.6 

44-7 
40.7 


Per 
cent 


58.5 
82.S 

79-7 
72.4 

82.0 
49.0 


71.6 
57-2 

84.2 
32.6 

35-8 

81.7 
40.0 

83.1 
395 

75-4 
61.9 

72.S 
41-7 

73-4 
40.4 

43-7 


Protein 


Per 
cent 


II. I 
16.7 

18.7 
17.0 

17.0 

lO.I 


18.6 
14.8 

14.2 
5-4 

6.4 

17.2 
8.4 

iS-4 
7-3 

18.6 
iS-3 

19-5 
II. 2 

18.7 
10.2 

11.6 


as 

•o  a 


Per 
cent 


10.6 
16.3 

18.6 
i6.g 

i6.g 

lO.l 


18.3 
14.6 

13-9 
5-1 

6.3 

16.8 
8.2 

15-2 
7.2 

18.4 

I5-I 

18.9 
10.9 

18.3 

lO.O 

11.4 


Per 

cent 


9.1 
7.2 

.6 

•3 


•3 

.2 

•  7 
•3 

S-2 
4.4 

7-1 
3-9 

7-1 
4.2 

3-5 


Per 

cent 


Per 
cent 


228 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  23.     Average  Composition  of  Fish  —  Continued 


Desckiftion 


FISH,   FRESH 

Mullet,  whole : 

Edible  portion    , 

As  purchased 
Muskellunge,  whole : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased  .... 
Perch,  white,  whole,  edible 

portion      .     . 
Perch,  yellow,  whole : 

Edible  jwrtion    . 

As  purchased  .... 
Perch,   yellow,   dressed,   as 

purchased  .... 
Pickerel,  pike,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .     .     . 

As  purchased      .     .     . 
Pickerel,  pike,  entrails  re 

moved,  as  purchased 
Pollock,  dressed : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Porgy,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Salmon,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased  .... 
Salmon,  entrails  removed,  as 

purchased : 
Shad,  whole : 

Edible  portion    .... 

As  purchased  .  .  .  . 
Shad  roe,  as  purchased  .  . 
Sheepshead,  edible  portion 


Protein 

5 

g 

u 

1 

v6 
X 

2; 

n 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

I 



74-9 

19-5 

19-3 

4.6 



1.2 

I 

57-9 

Z^-S 

8.2 

8.1 

2.0 

— 

•5 

I 

— 

76.3 

20.2 

ig.6 

2.5 

— 

1.6 

I 

49.2 

38.7 

10.2 

lO.O 

1-3 

— 

.8 

2 

— 

75-7 

19-3 

1 9.1 

4.0 

— 

1.2 

2 

— 

79-3 

18.7 

18.7 

.8 

— 

1.2 

I 

62.7 

30.0 

6.6 

6.7 

.2 

— 

•4 

I 

35-1 

50-7 

12.8 

12.6 

•7 

— 

.9 

3 

— 

79.8 

18.7 

18.6 

•S 

— 

I.I 

2 

47.1 

42.2 

9.9 

9-9 

.2 

— 

.6 

I 

42.7 

45-7 

10.7 

10.7 

•3 

— 

.6 

1 

— 

76.0 

21.6 

21.7 

.8 

— 

1-5 

I 

28.5 

54-3 

154 

15-5 

.6 

— 

I.I 

3 

— 

7S-0 

18.6 

18.5 

S-i 

— 

1.4 

3 

60.0 

29.9 

7-4 

7-4 

2.1 

— 

.6 

6 

64.6 

22.0 

21.2 

12.8 

— 

1.4 

4 

34-9 

40.9 

15-3 

14.4 

8.9 

— 

•9 

29-5 

48.1 

13-8 

13-5 

8.1 

— 

.8 

7 

— 

70.6 

18.8 

18.6 

9-5 

— 

1-3 

7 

SO.  I 

35-2 

9.4 

9.2 

4.8 

— 

.7 

I 

— 

71.2 

20.9 

— 

3-8 

2.6 

i-S 

2 

— 

7S-6 

20.1 

19-5 

3-7 

— 

1.2 

POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH 


229 


Table  23.     Average  Composition  of  Fish  —  Continued 


Description 


Protein 


S3  o 

•c  a 


FISH,   FRESH 

Sheepshead,      entrails     j 
moved,  as  purchased 
Smelt,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased      .     .     , 
Spanish  mackerel,  whole 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Sturgeon,  anterior  sections 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Tomcod,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Trout,  brook,  whole : 

Edible  portion    . 

As  purchased      .     . 
Trout,  salmon  or  lake 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Turbot : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Weakfish,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Whitefish,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 


Frogs'  legs : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 


Per 

cent 


56.6 


41.9 


34-6 


14.4 


59-9 


48.S 


47-7 


51-9 


53-5 


320 


Per 

cent 


31.2 

79.2 
46.1 

68.1 
44-5 

78.7 
67.4 

81.S 
32.7 

77.8 
40.4 

70.8 
36.6 

71.4 
37-3 

79.0 
38.0 

69.8 
32-5 


83.7 
56.9 


Per 

cent 


9.0 

17.6 
lO.I 

21.5 
I4.I 

I8.I 

17.2 
6.9 

19.2 
9.9 

17.8 
9.1 

14.8 

7-7 

17.8 
8.6 

22.9 
10.6 


I5-S 


Per 

cent 


17-3 

lO.O 

21.0 
13-7 

18.0 
15-4 

17.1 
6.8 

18.9 
9.8 

17.7 
9.2 

12.9 
6.8 

17.4 
8.4 

22.1 
10.3 


I5-I 
10.3 


Per 

cent 


2.9 


9.4 
6.2 


1.9 

1.6 


2.1 
I.I 

10.3 
5-1 

14.4 
7-5 

.2.4 
I.I 

6.5 
3-0 


Per 

cent 


1-7 
i.o 

1-5 
1.0 

1.4 
1.2 

1.0 
•4 

1.2 
.6 

1.2 
6 

1-3 

•7 

1.2 
.6 

1.6 
•7 


1.0 
•7 


230  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Preserved  Fish 

Many  kinds  of  fish  are  preserved  in  large  quantities  by  drying, 
salting,  smoking,  canning,  or  by  combinations  of  these  processes. 
As  illustrative  of  these  industries  the  preparation  of  salt  codfish, 
canned  salmon,  and  sardines  in  oil  will  be  outlined. 

Preparation  of  salt  cod.  This  is  a  New  England  industry 
centering  at  Gloucester,  Mass.  The  annual  product  (including 
cusk,  haddock,  hake,  and  pollock  which  are  caught  and  handled 
with  the  cod)  is  estimated  to  represent  a  catch  of  about 
225,000,000  pounds.  In  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bitting 
describes  the  process  as  follows : 

The  cod  are  separated  into  three  classes,  snappers,  medium,  and  large, 
according  to  their  size.  All  codfish  less  than  16  inches  from  the  curve  of  the 
nape  to  the  hollow  of  the  tail  are  designated  as  snappers ;  those  more  than  16 
but  under  22  inches  are  called  medium,  and  those  above  22  inches  are  rated 
as  large.  The  codfish  generally  run  —  snappers  4  per  cent,  medium  41  per 
cent,  and  large  55  per  cent.  The  cusk  and  hake  are  generally  divided  into 
two  sizes,  the  snappers  under  19  inches  and  the  large  above  that.  Each 
class  is  weighed  and  kept  separate,  being  examined  for  any  evidence  of  spoil- 
age as  they  are  pitched  out.  .  .  . 

The  curing  of  salt  fish  depends  upon  drying,  and  this  is  accomplished  in 
three  ways  —  by  the  use  of  salt,  by  pressure,  and  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
either  in  the  open  air  or  in  a  drier.  In  this  country  all  three  agents  are 
employed,  as  it  is  not  possible  to  dry  the  fish  in  the  air  alone,  as  is  done  in 
certain  parts  of  Norway. 

Salt  acts  as  a  drier  as  well  as  a  preservative,  as  it  abstracts  moisture  wher- 
ever it  comes  in  contact  with  the  tissue,  whether  this  be  in  the  kench  in  the 
boat  or  in  the  butt  at  the  factory.  In  the  strictly  full-pickle  fish  (that  is, 
fresh  fish  placed  in  the  butt)  the  maximum  effect  of  drying  by  means  of  salt 
is  accompUshed.  All  the  water  abstracted  in  making  pickle  is  so  much  dry- 
ing. Kenching  and  air  drying  are  necessary  to  complete  the  operation, 
though  the  amount  of  water  abstracted  by  the  latter  operations  is  not  so 
great  as  is  generally  supposed.  In  the  "  kench  cure  "  there  is  a  combination 
of  salting  and  pressure.  .  .  . 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  fish  is  cured  by  a  combination  of  these  two 
processes,  being  salted  and  kenched  on  board  the  boat  and  the  work  com- 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  23 1 

pleted  in  pickle  at  the  factory.  One  of  the  advantages  of  the  pickle  cure  is 
that  the  fish  can  be  handled  at  all  seasons  and  at  such  a  rate  as  the  trade  may 
demand.  For  the  slack-salted  fish  the  salt  is  used  as  a  preservative  and  the 
drying  is  accomplished  by  pressure  and  in  the  air.  This  can  be  done  only 
when  the  weather  is  favorable. 

The  more  fully  the  drying  is  done  by  salt  or  by  pressure,  the  less  time  is 
required  on  the  flakes.  Those  dried  for  domestic  consumption  are  not  nearly 
so  dry  as  those  packed  for  export  trade.  In  the  former  class  the  moisture 
content  is  usually  between  43  and  5 1  per  cent,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  between 
28  and  35  per  cent.  .  .  . 

The  fish  are  dried  on  flakes  and  the  drying  yard  is  known  as  the  flake  yard. 
The  flake  consists  of  a  lattice  bed  about  8  feet  wide,  30  inches  high,  and  as 
long  as  the  requirements  may  demand.  The  lattice  used  on  this  bed  is  made 
of  triangular  strips  i  inch  on  the  base,  and  these  are  placed  about  3  inches 
apart.  The  fish  therefore  rest  upon  a  sharp  edge  about  every  4  inches.  This 
is  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  maximum  circulation  of  air  about  the  fish. 
One  double-deck  flake  yard  was  seen,  the  space  between  decks  being  18 
inches. 

At  regular  intervals  along  the  flakes,  crosspieces  are  provided  over  which 
to  stretch  a  canvas  to  protect  the  fish  from  sunburn  during  hot  weather. 
Boxes  or  coops  are  also  provided  to  cover  the  fish  during  rains  and  at 
night.  .  .  . 

The  fish  are  spread  out  carefully  on  the  flakes  with  the  face  side  up,  and  the 
drying  is  continued  as  long  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  particular  grade  of 
fish.  The  full-pickle  fish  are  dried  for  the  shortest  period,  as  they  cannot  be 
skinned  readily  if  too  dry,  and,  furthermore,  the  trade  seems  to  desire  fish 
which  are  moist  and  not  too  hard,  and  these  retain  practically  50  per  cent  of 
their  water.  If  the  sun  is  fairly  warm  and  there  is  a  good  breeze,  the  drying 
can  be  accomplished  in  about  ten  hours  as  the  minimum  time,  but  this  may 
be  greatly  increased  with  unfavorable  weather  conditions.  Only  one  drying 
is  usual  for  the  full-cured  fish. 

The  slack-salted  fish  are  generally  dried  for  two  days,  kenched  for  two  or 
three  days  to  "  sweat  "  them,  then  placed  on  the  flakes  again  for  one  day. 
Porto  Rican  or  hard-dried  fish  are  dried  for  three  days,"  sweated  "  for  two 
days,  and  then  again  dried  for  two  days.  The  object  of  the  "  sweating  " 
is  to  bring  the  moisture  out  of  the  interior  of  the  fish.  The  drying  on  the 
flakes  removes  the  moisture  from  the  surface  and  crystallizes  the  salt,  but 
to  get  the  moisture  out  of  the  center  of  the  meat  the  fish  must  be  piled  in 
the  kench,  where  the  dry  salt  takes  up  some  of  the  remaining  moisture,  so 
that  the  second  drying  on  the  flakes  has  a  greater  effect.  The  full-pickle 
fish  lose  about  9  per  cent  of  their  weight  in  drying  on  the  flakes.    When 


232  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

cured,  they  retain  about  50  per  cent  of  their  moisture,  the  slack-salted  retain 
35  to  40  per  cent,  and  the  hard-dried  from  25  to  30  per  cent. 

The  fish  are  taken  to  the  skinning  department  according  to  the  orders  to 
be  filled.  If  the  fish  are  to  be  put  up  as  "  absolutely  boneless,"  then  the 
fins  are  pulled  out  and  the  skin  pulled  off.  The  skin  is  started  at  the  napes 
and  pulled  in  toward  the  middle  of  the  back  and  then  pulled  toward  the 
tail.  If  the  fish  has  been  properly  cured,  the  skin  can  be  stripped  off  clean 
without  tearing  the  flesh.  If  it  has  been  sunburned,  the  skin  will  not  hang 
together  well.  After  the  back  has  been  skinned  the  fish  is  turned  over  and 
the  dark  lining  membrane  of  the  napes  is  stripped  forward  so  that  the  whole 
fish  is  clean.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  backbone  is  cut  out  and  the  fish 
is  passed  to  the  bone  pickers,  who  remove  with  forceps  the  ribs  and  any 
pieces  of  bone  left  in  the  body.  If  the  fish  are  to  be  packed  as  so-called 
"  boneless,"  then  the  fins  are  only  cut  off  and  the  thick  part  of  the  backbone 
cut  out  closely,  the  small  pieces  of  the  fins,  ribs,  and  backbone  being  allowed 
to  remain.  The  term  "  boneless  "  as  used  in  the  trade  is  hardly  appropriate 
and  should  be  changed  for  one  more  nearly  descriptive  of  the  real  conditions. 

From  bone  picking  to  cutting  is  a  short  step.  The  table  at  which  this  is 
done  is  made  of  boards  with  openings  between  them  at  regular  intervals. 
The  fish  are  laid  on  the  cutting  table  so  that  the  best  parts  come  between 
the  openings.  A  half  dozen  pieces  or  more  may  be  stretched  out  at  a  time 
across  these  openings,  then  a  long-bladed  knife  is  swept  through  them  and 
they  are  ready  to  be  packed  into  fish  cakes,  etc.  A  trough  or  miter  box  is 
also  used  for  securing  the  same  result. 

The  pieces  of  fish  are  passed  to  girls,  who  sort  them  and  weigh  out  exactly 
a  pound  or  two  pounds,  whatever  the  cake  or  package  is  to  be.  Two  good 
slices  are  selected  to  make  the  outside  of  the  packages,  and  short  or  narrow 
strips  to  make  up  the  middle  part.  .  .  .  The  mold  is  pressed  tightly  by 
foot  power,  held  for  a  few  seconds,  and  a  twine  string  tied  securely  around 
near  each  end.  .  .  .  The  package  is  completed  by  wrapping  first  in  paraf- 
fined paper  and  then  in  the  labeled  wrapper. 

Preparation  of  canned  salmon.  The  salmon  of  the  North 
Pacific  coast  has  now  become  one  of  the  most  important  fishery 
products.  It  is  said  that  in  the  Northwest  the  catching  and 
packing  of  salmon  is  an  enterprise  second  only  to  the  lumber 
industry  in  size.  The  output  in  191 1  amounted  to  290,000,000 
cans.  The  canned  salmon  put  up  in  this  region  is  used  through- 
out America  and  also  to  a  considerable  extent  abroad.  The 
outline  of  the  industry  which  follows  is  based  upon  a  paper  by 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  233 

Loomis  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  presented  at  the  Eighth  International  Congress 
of  Applied  Chemistry. 

There  are  five  principal  varieties  of  salmon  packed  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  each  of  which  is  known  by  several  names,  depend- 
ing upon  the  locality  in  which  it  is  caught.  The  fish  with  reddest 
flesh  and  most  oil  are  usually  preferred  by  consumers,  the  follow- 
ing-being  the  commonly  accepted  order  of  preference :  (i)  Red 
salmon,  sockeye,  or  blueback;  (2)  chinook,  king,  or  spring 
salmon ;  (3)  medium  red  salmon,  cohoe,  or  silverside ;  (4)  hump- 
back or  pink  salmon ;   (5)  chum  or  dog  salmon. 

The  salmon  spend  most  of  their  lives  in  the  sea  but  spawn  in 
the  fresh  water  of  the  rivers.  They  are  caught  in  seines  and 
traps  of  various  forms,  placed  along  the  shores  of  the  mainland 
or  islands  at  points  which  the  large  schools  of  fish  pass  on  their 
way  from  the  ocean  to  the  rivers.  As  many  as  50,000  salmon 
are  sometimes  taken  in  a  trap  at  once.  The  sockeye  salmon 
weighs  usually  from  5  to  10  pounds,  while  the  other  varieties  are 
larger,  the  chinook  being  largest  and  averaging  about  30  pounds. 

At  the  cannery  the  fish  are  unloaded  and  carried  by  conveyor 
to  a  machine  which  removes  the  heads,  tails,  fins,  and  entrails. 
The  fish  are  then  cleaned,  washed,  and  sliced  transversely  into 
pieces  of  the  right  size  to  fit  the  cans.  Salt  is  first  placed  in  the 
cans,  then  the  sections  of  salmon  are  packed  in,  the  can  covers 
put  on,  and  the  whole  heated  in  a  steam  retort  for  one  half  hour, 
sealed  while  hot,  tested  for  leaks,  heated  again  at  240°  F.  to 
sterilize  the  contents,  and  the  cans  finally  retested,  cleaned, 
lacquered,  and  labeled.  The  details  vary  somewhat,  depending 
upon  whether  a  soldered  can  or  a  so-called  sanitary  can  is  used. 

The  salmon  canning  industry  is  regulated  by  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  and  by  the  Bureau 
of  Fisheries  under  the  provisions  of  the  Alaska  Fisheries  Law. 
Loomis  finds  that  the  methods  in  use  are  generally  adapted  to 
the  production  of  a  fresh,  clean,  and  high-grade  product  and 


234  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

that  there  is  little  if  any  attempt  at  misbranding,  the  cans  being 
generally  labeled  to  show  the  variety  of  salmon  contained  in  them. 
The  sardine  industry.  The  fish  packed  in  France  under  the 
name  sardine  is  the  Clupea  pilchardus;  while  the  Maine  sardine 
is  the  Clupea  harengus.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries 
and  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  the  name 
sardine  is  equally  applicable  to  either  species.  Sardines  need 
not  therefore  be  labeled  to  show  their  origin,  but  of  course  must 
not  "  purport  to  be  a  foreign  product  when  not  so."  Also  if 
packed  in  any  other  than  olive  oil,  the  fact  must  be  stated. 
French  sardines  are  usually  packed  with  much  care  in  olive  oil 
and  sold  at  a  high  price.  Maine  sardines  are  usually  handled 
rapidly  in  large  quantities,  packed  in  cottonseed  oil  and  sold 
at  such  low  prices  as  to  make  them  an  economical  food.  The 
following  outline  of  the  industry  as  carried  on  in  Maine  is  taken 
from  reports  made  by  Buswell  to  the  Maine  Experiment  Station 
in  191 1,  and  by  Hanson  to  the  Eighth  International  Congress 
of  Applied  Chemistry  in  191 2. 

Sardines  are  canned  in  about  fifty-five  factories  along  the  Maine  coast,  the 
total  annual  output  being  between  125,000,000  and  200,000,000  cans  valued 
at  from  $5,000,000  to  $7,000,000  according  to  the  season. 

The  fish  are  trapped  in  weirs  and  are  taken  by  seining  the  weir  shortly 
before  low  tide.  As  many  as  three  hundred  hogsheads  of  herring  have  been 
caught  in  a  single  weir  at  one  time. 

At  the  factory  they  are  scooped  into  tubs  with  scoop  nets  or  shovels,  and 
hoisted  to  the  sluicing  troughs,  which  run  on  an  incline  either  through  a 
separator  to  the  pickle  tanks  or  directly  to  the  tanks  without  separating. 
The  separator  is  a  simple  device  for  separating  those  to  be  packed  in  oil  — 
3  to  7  inches  in  length  —  from  the  larger  ones  which  are  to  be  packed  in 
mustard  sauce.  It  consists  of  an  inclined  revolving  drum  made  up  of  hoops 
of  steel  pipe  placed  closer  together  at  the  upper  than  at  the  lower  end.  As 
the  fish  are  sluiced  through  the  separator  the  smaller  ones  drop  through  the 
openings  at  the  upper  end  while  those  larger  pass  on  to  the  lower  end.  From 
the  separator  the  fish  fall  into  sluices  which  convey  them  to  the  pickle  tanks. 
The  lower  end  of  these  sluices  is  made  of  coarse  wire  netting  which  allows  the 
water  to  drain  off  and  prevents  the  dilution  of  the  pickle. 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  235 

The  pickle  tanks  are  of  wood  and  hold  about  three  hogsheads.  They  are 
filled  about  one  third  full  with  a  go  to  95  per  cent  saturated  salt  solution. 
This  solution  is  strong  enough  to  float  the  fish.  If  it  becomes  so  weak  —  due 
to  the  loss  of  the  salt  taken  up  by  the  fish  —  that  the  fish  sink,  it  is  consid- 
ered a  sign  that  they  are  beginning  to  take  up  water,  which  is  most  undesir- 
able. The  length  of  time  the  fish  are  left  in  the  pickle  is  variable,  but  the 
most  common  practice  is  to  leave  the  fish  in  the  pickle  from  one  and  one  half 
to  three  hours.  The  object  of  the  pickling  is  to  toughen  the  fish  and  give 
flavor.  Fat  fish  take  the  salt  much  less  readily  than  do  lean  fish,  hence  re- 
quire a  longer  time  in  the  pickle. 

From  the  pickle  room  the  fish  are  sluiced  or  carried  in  baskets  to  the  flaking 
room  where  they  are  laid  in  rows  on  wire  trays  or  flakes.  This  is  usually 
done  by  machine,  but  sometimes  by  hand.  The  flaking  machine  when 
properly  operated  does  the  work  much  faster  than  it  can  be  done  by  hand. 

The  flakes  of  fish  are  next  placed  in  racks  running  on  rollers  and  these  are 
pushed  into  the  steam  boxes  where  they  are  cooked  with  live  steam  for  from 
8  to  IS  minutes.  The  object  of  steaming  is  to  cook  the  fish.  A  well-cooked 
fish  should  not  show  blood  along  the  backbone. 

After  steaming  the  fish  are  dried,  either  in  air  driers  or  in  ovens.  The  air 
driers  are  in  general  of  two  types  :  First,  a  long  low-ceiling  room  with  a  large 
fan  at  one  end  which  blows  heated  air  over  the  racks  of  fish ;  second,  a  cir- 
cular chamber  with  a  fan  in  the  center.  From  the  first  type  the  dried  fish 
are  taken  out  by  a  door  at  the  fan  end  of  the  drier  while  at  the  same  time 
wet  fish  are  being  put  in  at  the  opposite  end.  Two  or  three  hours  are  re- 
quired for  drying.  In  the  second  type  the  floor  of  the  chamber  revolves 
slowly  so  that  as  they  pass  a  certain  point  the  racks  of  dry  fish  are  taken  ofif 
and  wet  fish  put  on. 

There  are  two  types  of  ovens,  the  older  or  reel  oven  and  the  track  oven. 
The  reel  oven  is  of  brick  having  a  large  reel  revolving  over  a  hard  coal  fire. 
As  the  pans  which  hang  from  the  arms  of  the  reel  come  to  the  front  of  the 
oven  the  flakes  of  dried  fish  are  taken  off  and  wet  fish  put  on.  The  time  of 
one  revolution  varies  with  the  heat  of  the  fire  and  the  size  of  the  fish,  but  as  a 
rule  about  20  minutes  are  required  to  dry  the  fish  thoroughly.  The  other 
tj^je  of  oven  has  steel  tracks  arranged  so  that  the  racks  of  flakes  can  be 
pushed  in  over  the  fire ;  1 5  to  30  minutes  are  required  to  dry  the  fish  in  this 
kind  of  an  oven. 

The  dried  fish  are  next  distributed  to  the  packing  tables,  where  they  are 
beheaded  with  shears  and  packed  in  tin  boxes,  holding  4  or  11  ounces  of  fish. 
In  general  the  small  fish  are  packed  in  oil  in  the  4-ounce  boxes,  the  larger  fish 
in  mustard  sauce  in  i  i-ounce  boxes.  Fish  of  intermediate  size  are  brought  to 
the  proper  length  for  the  smaller  boxes  by  cutting  off  the  anterior  portions. 


236 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


(These  anterior  sections,  which  of  courpe  are  just  as  good  as  the  part  used  for 
canning,  furnish  the  material  for  the  manufacture  of  "  deviled  sardine.") 

The  cans  then  go  to  the  seaUng  machine,  where  the  covers  are  sealed  on, 
after  which  they  are  "  bathed."  The  bath  is  a  rectangular  steel  tank  about 
three  and  one  half  feet  deep,  filled  with  water  and  heated  by  a  perforated 
steam  coil  in  the  bottom.  The  object  of  "  bathing  "  is  to  sterilize  the  con- 
tents of  the  can  and  to  soften  the  bones.  To  accomplish  this  the  four  ounce 
cans  are  bathed  from  one  and  one  quarter  to  two  hours,  and  the  eleven  ounce 
cans  from  one  and  one  half  to  three  hours.  Long  bathing  tends  to 
'•  chowder  "  the  fish. 

The  sardines  packed  in  oil  in  the  four  ounce  cans  are  called  by  the  trade 
"  quarter  oils."  A  few  are  packed  in  mustard  sauce  in  the  same  size  cans 
and  these  are  called  "  quarter  mustards."  Most  of  the  fish  packed  in  mus- 
tard sauce,  however,  are  packed  in  the  11  ounce  size  and  these  are  called 
"  three-quarter  mustards." 

Composition  of  preserved  fish.  The  results  of  American 
analyses  of  canned,  dried,  salted,  and  smoked  fish  as  compiled 
by  At  water  and  Bryant  are  as  follows : 


Table  24.     Composition  of  Preserved  Fish 


s 

m 

Protein 

I 

Description 

^ 
1^ 

(A 

X 

is  g 

^ 

g 

H 
0 
P3 
ti 

< 

< 

4 

is 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cals. 

fish,  preserved  and 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

CANNED 

Cod,  salt,  "boneless,"  as 

purchased        .     .     . 

I 

1.6 

54-8 

27.7 

28.6 

•3 

— 

14.7 

51S 

Haddock,  smoked : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

I 

— 

72.5 

3-3 

23-7 

.2 

— 

3-6 

431 

As  purchased      .     .     . 

I 

32.2 

49.2 

15-8 

16.I 

.1 

— 

2.4 

291 

Halibut,  smoked : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

2 

— 

49.4 

20.7 

20.6 

iS-o 

— 

iiS.o 

988 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

2 

27.0 

46.0 

19-3 

1 9.1 

14.0 

— 

13-9 

922 

Herring,  smoked : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

I 

— 

34-6 

36-9 

36-4 

15-8 

— 

2 13.2 

131S 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

I 

44.4 

19.2 

20.5 

20.2 

8.8 

— 

7-4 

731 

iQne  sample  contained  12.1  per  cent  common  salt. 
•  Contained  11. 7  per  cent  common  salt. 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH 


237 


Table  24.     Composition  of  Preserved  Fish  —  Continued 


Ui 

Protein 

^ 

"e 

ogi      „ 

ee 

^ 

Description 

^2 

D 
fa 

vO 

i» 

< 

H 

1 

l< 

P<! 

^ 

X 

>> 

< 
0 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Col. 

FISH,    PRESERVED   AND 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

CANNED 

Mackeifel,     salt,    entrails 

removed : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

I 

— 

42.2 

21. 1 

22.0 

22.6 

— 

'13.2 

130S 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

I 

22.9 

32.5 

16.3 

17.0 

17.4 

— 

10.2 

1005 

Mackerel,    salt,    canned. 

as  purchased    .     .     . 

I 

— 

68.2 

19.6 

ig.g 

8.7 

— 

3-2 

711 

Mackerel,  salt,  canned  in 

oil: 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

I 

— 

58.3 

25-4 

23-5 

14.I 

— 

4.1 

1037 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

I 

'31-5 

39-9 

17.4 

16.1 

9-7 

— 

2.8 

722 

Mackerel,  salt,  dressed : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

2 

— 

43-4 

17-3 

17-3 

26.4 

— 

'  12.9 

1392 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

2 

19.7 

34-8 

13-9 

13-9 

21.2 

■■ — 

10.4 

II18 

Pilchard      in      tomatoes, 

canned,    Russia,    as 

purchased   .... 

I 

— 

52.7 

27.9 

27-5 

15-8 

— 

4.0 

I152 

Salmon,  canned : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

7 

— 

63.5 

21.8 

21.8 

12. 1 

— 

2.6 

889 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

3 

14.2 

56.8 

I9-S 

19-5 

7-5 

— 

2.0 

660 

Sardines,  canned: 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

2 

— 

52.3 

23.0 

22.4 

19.7 

— 

5-6 

I22I 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

I 

^.o 

53.6 

23-7 

24.0 

12. 1 

— 

S-3 

924 

Sturgeon,  dried,  Russia : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

— 

50.6 

31-8 

32.2 

9.6 

— 

7.6 

969 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

12.7 

44.1 

27.8 

28.1 

8.4 

— 

6.7 

848 

Sturgeon,  caviare,  pressed, 

Russian,  as  purchased 

— 

38.1 

30.0 

— 

19.7 

7.6 

4.6 

1487 

Tunney,  as  purchased 

— 

72.7 

21.7 

21.S 

4.1 

— 

1-7 

560 

Tunney,    canned    in    oil, 

Russia : 

Edible  portion     .     .     . 

— 

51-3 

238 

— 

20.0 

0.6 

4-3 

1260 

As  purchased       .     .     . 

16.7 

42.7 

20.3 

— 

16.7 

— 

3-6 

1400 

*  Contained  9.2  per  cent  common  salt.  *  Refuse,  oil. 

*  Contained  10.4  per  cent  common  salt. 


238  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Shellfish 

The  principal  shellfish  used  for  food  are  divisible  into  two 
classes:  (i)  mollusks,  including  oysters,  clams,  mussels,  and 
scallops;  (2)  crustaceans,  including  lobsters,  crabs,  shrimps, 
and  crawfish. 

Of  all  of  these  the  oyster  is  by  far  the  most  important  as  a 
factor  in  the  general  food  supply. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  oyster  crop  of  the  United  States 
(representing  about  two  thirds  of  the  world's  supply)  approx- 
imates 25,000,000  bushels  annually,  valued  at  about  $20,000,000. 
The  total  amount  paid  at  retail  would  of  course  be  much  larger. 
The  shores  of  Long  Island  and  of  Chesapeake  Bay  produce 
oysters  abundantly.  According  to  statistics  collected  by  Stiles, 
the  chief  oyster-producing  states  are,  in  order  of  rank :  New 
York,  Virginia,  Connecticut,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Rhode 
Island,  Louisiana,  Mississippi.  A  considerable  proportion  of 
the  oyster  crop,  perhaps  one  fifth,  is  preserved  by  canning.  The 
oyster-canning  industry  grew  up  around  Baltimore,  but  is  now 
carried  on  to  an  even  larger  extent  in  some  of  the  more  Southern 
states,  where  there  are  areas  well  suited  to  oyster  culture  but 
not  readily  accessible  to  the  large  markets. 

Although  still  classified  with  the  fisheries,  the  oyster  industry 
is  rapidly  becoming  a  kind  of  farming.  Submerged  lands  suit- 
able for  oyster  culture  are  either  owned  or  rented  from  the  state, 
and  many  people  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  the  care  of 
these  oyster  farms,  which  in  some  cases  are  natural  oyster  beds 
which  have  been  conserved  and  in  other  cases  are  the  result  of 
artificial  planting.  The  oyster  reproduces  by  eggs  which  on 
hatching  yield  free-swimming  larvae,  but  when  about  two  weeks 
old  the  young  oysters  have  secreted  shells  of  sufficient  weight 
to  cause  them  to  sink  and  they  then  "  set  "  on  any  object  with 
which  they  come  in  contact,  and  thereafter  are  stationary. 
By  the  end  of  the  first  season  the  young  oyster  is  from  one  to 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  239 


Fig.  19.  —  Seed  oysters. 


240  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

two  centimeters,  or  about  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  at  this  stage  in  their  development  are  often  sold 
as  "  seed  oysters  "  (Fig.  19)  to  be  replanted  in  other  beds.  This 
transplanting  of  oysters  is  a  matter  of  growing  importance  and 
appears  to  make  possible  a  great  development  of  the  industry, 
since  there  are  large  areas  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts,  as  well  as  in  other  countries,  where  the  conditions  are 
unfavorable  for  spawning  but  entirely  suitable  for  the  raising 
of  transplanted  oysters.  The  rate  of  growth  of  the  oyster  is 
dependent  upon  its  environment,  but  in  general  it  is  expected 
that  the  oysters  will  be  marketed  when  from  three  to  five  years 
old. 

It  is  partly  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  the  shellfish  grounds 
of  the  estuaries  and  inland  waters  that  the  state  and  federal 
governments  are  now  taking  steps  to  prevent  or  regulate  the 
discharge  of  raw  sewage  into  rivers  and  harbors. 

The  feeding  habits  of  oysters,  clams,  and  mussels  make  it 
probable  that  they  will  contain  considerable  numbers  of  bacteria 
of  the  types  characteristic  of  the  waters  in  which  they  live. 
Hence  when  these  shellfish  are  taken  from  (or  have  been  kept 
in)  sewage-polluted  waters,  they  may  easily  contain  bacteria 
of  the  intestinal  types  and  thus  may  become  carriers  of  typhoid 
fever  as  well  as  less  serious  intestinal  disorders.  This  was  first 
clearly  demonstrated  by  Conn,  in  the  investigation  of  an  epi- 
demic of  typhoid  among  the  students  of  Wesleyan  University  in 
1894.  The  epidemic  was  confined  to  members  of  the  various 
college  fraternities  which  had  held  banquets  in  their  several 
houses,  but  all  on  the  same  evening.  Each  of  these  banquets 
had  included  raw  oysters  and  all  the  oysters  came  from  one 
dealer  and  had  been  "  floated  "  or  "  fattened  "  at  the  mouth 
of  a  stream.  This  stream  was  found  to  be  highly  polluted,  and 
further  investigation  showed  that  in  one  house  near  by  there 
were  two  cases  of  typhoid  the  discharges  of  which  passed  through 
the  hpuse  drain  into  the  stream  without  disinfection.     There 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  241 

was  left  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  typhoid  bacteria  passed 
from  the  patients  in  the  house  near  the  stream  to  the  oysters 
and  so  to  the  students  at  the  banquet.  In  1902  there  occurred 
simultaneous  outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever  at  Winchester  and  at 
Southampton,  England,  which  were  traced  to  contaminated 
oysters  from  a  common  source.  In  191 2  two  epidemics  of 
typhoid  and  other  intestinal  disorders  were  clearly  traced  by 
Stiles  ^  to  oysters  obtained  from  a  dealer  who  was  accustomed  to 
store  his  shellfish  in  water  which  on  investigation  was  found  to 
be  contaminated.  As  Prescott  and  Winslow  point  out :  ^ 
"  It  should  be  noted  that  it  is  unfortunately  not  only  raw  shell- 
fish which  are  responsible  for  the  spread  of  disease.  Most  of 
the  processes  of  cooking  to  which  these  foods  are  subjected  are 
insufficient  to  destroy  pathogenic  germs."  These  authors  quote 
results  showing  that,  with  steamed  clams,  the  bacteria  present 
could  not  be  destroyed  except  by  a  temperature  high  enough  and 
prolonged  enough  to  ruin  the  clams  for  eating  and  that  oyster 
stew,  fried  oysters,  and  fancy  roast  oysters  may  still  contain 
active  bacteria  of  the  types  indicative  of  sewage  pollution. 
Clams  in  chowder,  on  the  other  hand,  were  found  to  be 
practically  sterilized. 

When  shellfish  are  carelessly  opened  and  handled,  they  may 
receive  additional  contamination  in  the  process.  Stiles,  in 
191 1,  found  enormously  greater  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the 
"  shucked  "  than  in  the  corresponding  "  shell  "  oysters. 

Gorham  ^  has  found  that  oysters  taken  from  the  same  beds 
show  much  less  contamination  in  winter  than  in  summer. 
He  believes  that  during  the  cold  weather  the  oysters  assume  a 
condition  of  rest  or  hibernation,  during  which  the  process  of 
feeding  is  suspended.  In  such  a  condition  no  organisms  would 
be  taken  in  from  the  outside  water  and  those  within  the  oyster 

'  See  references  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 
'  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology  (3d  ed.),  page  248. 
'  See  references  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 
R 


242  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

are  gradually  destroyed.  These  observations  upon  seasonal 
variations  were  made  with  oysters  taken  from  Narragansett 
Bay ;  whether  the  same  holds  true  in  the  warmer  waters  farther 
south  does  not  appear  to  have  been  determined.  It  would  seem 
only  a  reasonable  precaution  not  to  eat  shellfish  taken  from 
contaminated  waters  at  any  season  of  the  year;  at  least  not 
until  after  such  thorough  cooking  as  to  insure  the  death  of  any 
bacteria  present. 

Oysters  are  often  kept  for  a  time  after  gathering,  on  rafts 
constructed  with  false  bottoms  where  they  remain  immersed 
in  the  water.  This  is  called  "  floating."  Except  where  the 
practice  is  forbidden  by  law,  it  is  common  for  the  dealers  to 
"  float  "  oysters  in  waters  of  a  less  salt  content  than  that  in 
which  they  were  grown,  with  the  result  that  the  fresher  water 
enters  the  oyster,  increasing  its  plumpness  and  weight  and  giving 
it  a  whiter  appearance.  If  the  water  in  which  the  oysters  are 
floated  is  less  pure  than  that  in  which  they  were  grown,  the  dan- 
ger of  disease  bacteria  in  the  oyster  is  of  course  increased,  and 
vice  versa.  How  long  it  would  be  necessary  to  float  polluted 
oysters  in  pure  water  in  order  to  make  them  safe  cannot  be  stated 
with  any  degree  of  certainty  at  the  present  time. 

The  composition  of  the  principal  shellfish  used  for  food  is 
shown  in  Table  25,  in  which  the  percentages  of  nutrients  are 
those  given  by  Atwater  and  Bryant  and  the  fuel  values  are  re- 
calculated as  explained  in  earlier  chapters. 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,  AND   SHELLFISH 


243 


Table  25.    Average  Composition  of  Shellfish 


Protein 

« 

ogj 

M 

« 

go 

rig 

Desckiption 

H 
H 
■< 

0 
X 

V 

la  4) 

IS 
n 

< 

i 

u 

< 

>l 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Col. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

shellfish,  etc.,  fresh 

Clams,  long,  in  shell : 

Edible  portion      .     .     . 

4 

— 

85.8 

8.6 

— 

I.O 

2.0 

2.6 

233 

As  purchased    .... 

4 

41.9 

49.9 

S-O 

— 

.6 

I.I 

i-S 

^35 

Clams,  round,  in  shell : 

Edible  portion       .     .     . 

— 

86.2 

6.5 

— 

•4 

4.2 

2.7 

210 

As  purchased    .... 

67.S 

28.0 

2.1 

— 

.1 

1.4 

•9 

68 

Clams,  round,  removed  from 

■     shell,  as  purchased 

— 

80.8 

10.6 

— 

I.I 

5-2 

2-3 

332 

Crabs,  hardshell,  whole : 

Edible  portion       .     .     . 

— 

77.1 

16.6 

— 

2.0 

1.2 

3-1 

40s 

As  purchased    . 

52.4 

36.7 

7-9 

— 

•9 

.6 

1-5 

191 

Crayfish,  abdomen,  \ 

vhole : 

Edible  portion 

— 

81.2 

16.0 

— 

•5 

1.0 

1-3 

329 

As  purchased    . 

86.6 

10.9 

2.1 

— 

.1 

.1 

.2 

44 

Lobster,  whole : 

Edible  portion 

5 

— 

79.2 

16.4 

— 

1.8 

•4 

2.2 

379 

As  purchased    . 

5 

61.7 

30.7 

5-9 

— 

•7 

.2 

.8 

139 

Mussels,  in  shell : 

Edible  portion 

I 

— 

84.2 

8.7 

— 

I.I 

4.1 

1.9 

277 

As  purchased    . 

I 

46.7 

44.9 

4.6 

— 

.6 

2.2 

1.0 

148 

Oysters,  in  shell : 

Edible  portion 

34 

— 

86.9 

6.2 

— 

1.2 

3-7 

2.0 

228 

As  purchased    . 

34 

81.4 

16.1 

1.2 

— 

.2 

•7 

•4 

43 

Oysters,  solids,  as  pur- 

chased        

9 

— 

88.3 

6.0 

— 

1-3 

3-i 

I.I 

222 

Scallops,  as  purchased  .     . 

2 

— 

80.3 

14.8 

— 

.1 

3-4 

1.4 

334 

Terrapin : 

Edible  portion       .     .     . 

I 

— 

74-5 

21.2 

21.0 

3-5 

— 

1.0 

528 

As  purchased    .... 

I 

75-4 

18.3 

5-2 

5-2 

•9 

— 

.2 

131 

Turtle,  green,  whole : 

Edible  portion       .     .     . 

I 

— 

79.8 

19.8 

18.5 

•S 

— 

1.2 

380 

As  purchased    .... 

I 

76.0 

19.2 

4-7 

4.4 

.1 

•3 

89 

244 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  25.    Average  Composition  of  Shellfish  —  Continued 


f^  1,1 

Protein 

s 

So 

u^ 

Id 

s 

5?. 

Description 

§2 
9  < 

X 

as 

£ 

g 

•< 

u 

1 

is 
fa"- 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

P«r 

Cal 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

c«n< 

SHELLFISH,  ETC.,  CANNED 

Clams,  long,  as  purchased 

I 

— 

84.5 

9.0 

— 

1-3 

2.9 

2.3 

269 

Clams,  round,  as  purchased 

I 

— 

82.9 

lo.s 

— 

.8 

3-0 

2.8 

277 

Crabs,  as  purchased      .     . 

2 

— 

80.0 

iS-8 

— 

i-S 

•7 

2.0 

360 

Lobster,  £is  purchased  .     . 

2 

— 

77-8 

18.1 

— 

I.I 

•S 

2.S 

382 

Oysters,  as  purchased   .     . 

4 

— 

834 

8.8 

— 

2.4 

3-9 

I-S 

328 

Shrimp,  as  purchased    .     . 

I 

— 

70.8 

25-4 

— 

I.O 

.2 

2.6 

SOS 

Ash  constituents  of  oysters.  The  fact  that  the  oyster  secretes 
such  a  large  amount  of  calcium  in  its  shell  suggests  that  the 
edible  portion  may  be  relatively  rich  in  calcium  as  compared 
with  other  flesh  foods,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  are  strikingly  poor 
in  this  element. 

According  to  Albu  and  Neuberg  the  edible  portion  of  the 
oyster  is  strikingly  rich  in  calcium,  but  an  investigation  now  in 
progress  shows  the  following  preliminary  results : 

Per  Cent 

Calcium  oxide 0.06 

Magnesium  oxide 0.06 

Potassium  oxide 0.06 

Sodium  oxide 0.59  ^ 

Phosphorous  pentoxide 0.37 

Chlorine 0.67 

Sulphur 0.18 

This  analysis  shows  a  calcium  content  somewhat  above 
that  of  meat  but  much  below  that  of  milk,  and  a  preponder- 
ance of  acid-forming  elements  as  great  as  that  found  in  lean 
meats. 


POULTRY,    GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH 


245 


Comparison  of  Poultry,  Fish,  and  Shellfish  with  Other  Flesh 

Foods 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  similarity  of  all  these  flesh 
foods  and  to  the  fact  that  the  differences  in  general  composition 
are  chiefly  attributable  to  varying  fat  content. 

That  there  is  also  a  general  similarity  in  the  structure  of  the 
proteins  of  shellfish,  fish,  and  fowl  and  of  ordinary  meat  protein 
such  as  beef  is  shown  by  the  following  table  based  on  the  work 
of  Osborne : 


Table  26. 


Percentages  of  Amino  Acids  from  the  Flesh  of  widely 
Different  Species 


Glycin 
Alanin     .     . 
Valin .     .     . 
Leucin 
Prolin 

Phenylalanin 
Aspartic  acid 
Glutamic  acid' 
Tyrosin   . 
Arginin    .     . 
Histidin  . 
Lysin       .     . 
Ammonia 
TrjTptophan 

Summation 


SCAUX)PS 


8.78 
2.28 
4.90 

3-47 
14.88 

I-9S 
7.38 
2.02 

5-77 

1.08 

present 


52.51 


Halibut 


0.79 
IO-33 
3-17 
3-04 
2-73 
10.13 

2-39 
6.34 
2-55 
7-45 
1-33 
present 


50-25 


Chicken 


0.68 
2.28 

II. 19 
4-74 
3-53 
3.21 

16.48 
2.16 
6.50 
2.47 
7.24 
1.67 
present 


62.15 


Beef 


2.06 
3-72 
0.81 

11.65 
5-82 
315 
451 

1549 
2.20 

7-47 
1.76 

7-59 

1.07 

present 


67.30 


The  digestibility  of  fish  and  poultry  was  studied  quantitatively 
by  Milner  in  a  series  of  experiments  in  which  the  coefficient  of 
digestibility  was  determined  with  four  different  men  for  each 
of  the  four  foods,  canned  salmon,  fresh  cod,  canned  chicken,  and 
roast  duck.  The  average  coefficients  of  digestibility  found  were 
as  follows : 


246 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Salmon  . 
Cod  .  . 
Chicken 
Duck     . 


97.01 
97.40 
9713 
97-32 


The  digestibility  as  thus  determined  is  seen  to  be  approxi- 
mately equal  to  that  of  meats  and  appreciably  higher  than  that 
of  average  mixed  diet. 

While  these  coefficients  represent  digestibility  in  the  only 
sense  in  which  it  can  be  measured  quantitatively,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  term  digestibility  is  also  used  to  indicate  the  relative 
ease  and  comfort  with  which  foods  are  digested  and  the  readiness 
with  which  gastric  digestion  is  completed  as  evidenced  by  the 
time  elapsing  between  the  eating  of  the  food  and  its  entire 
passage  from  the  stomach  into  the  intestine.  In  these  respects 
oysters,  lean  fish,  and  chicken  are  held  to  be  even  more  digestible 
than  lean  beef,  while  fat  fish,  duck,  goose,  lobsters,  and  crabs 
are  held  to  be  of  about  the  same  order  of  digestibility  with  ham 
and  pork.  (See  for  instance  the  Table  of  Comparative  Digesti- 
bility in  Gilman  Thompson's  Practical  Dietetics.) 

Place  in  the  diet.  From  most  standpoints  poultry,  fish,  and 
shellfish  may  be  regarded  as  interchangeable  with  the  ordinary 
meats.  The  comparative  economy  of  these  different  types 
of  flesh  food  varies  widely  with  locality  and  season.  While 
game  has  become  so  scarce  and  costly  as  to  be  no  longer  an 
important  factor  in  the  food  supply,  the  prices  of  poultry,  fish, 
and  shellfish  appear  at  present  to  be  rising  less  rapidly  on  the 
whole  than  the  price  of  beef.  The  breaking  up  of  the  great 
cattle  ranges  into  small  cultivated  farms  naturally  tends  toward 

•One  of  the  four  experiments  with  chicken  gave  a  result  (93.13)  so  much  lower 
than  the  others  as  to  suggest  that  it  may  not  have  been  representative.  If  this  result 
be  omitted,  the  average  becomes  97.93. 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  247 

a  relative  (perhaps  not  absolute)  decrease  in  beef  production 
and  an  increase  (both  absolute  and  relative)  in  poultry  culture. 
Oyster  culture  is  becoming  systematized  so  that,  while  oysters 
will  doubtless  remain  an  expensive  food,  the  supply  will  probably 
increase.  The  fishery  industries  are  also  capable  of  great  develop- 
ment both  by  improved  methods  of  handling  the  species  now 
regarded  as  important  and  by  utilizing  as  food  the  flesh  of  species 
which  in  the  past  have  been  neglected.  Thus  it  is  said  that 
a  few  years  ago  sturgeon  was  so  little  prized  as  food  that  much 
of  it  was  used  as  fertilizer,  while  now  smoked  sturgeon  is  in  good 
demand,  and  that  still  more  recently  the  garfish,  formerly  re- 
garded merely  as  a  pest,  has  begun  to  find  a  market  as  a  food 
fish. 

Since  in  the  nature  of  the  case  the  meat  production  of  the 
country  cannot  be  greatly  increased  except  at  the  cost  of  a 
restricted  output  of  other  farm  crops,  we  may  anticipate  a  con- 
stantly increasing  tendency  towards  better  conservation  and 
more  economical  utilization  of  the  fishery  products  as  food. 


REFERENCES 


Atwater  and  Bryant.     The  Composition  of  American  Food  Materials. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Bulletin  28  (Revised). 
KoNiG.     Die  Menschlichen  Nahnmgs-  und  Genussmitteln. 
Langworthy.     Fish  as  Food.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Farmers'  Bulletin  85  (Revised). 
Prescott  and  Winslow.     Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  Chapter  XII. 
Thompson.     Practical  Dietetics. 

TiBBLES.     Foods :   their  Origin,  Composition  and  Manufacture. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries.     Reports  and  Bulletins. 
Wiley.     Foods  and  their  Adulteration. 


m 


248  FOOD   PRODUCTS 


II 

Poultry  and  Game 

MiLNER.  Experiments  on  the  Digestibility  of  Fish  and  Poultry.  Storrs 
(Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Seventeenth  Annual  Report, 
pages  1 16-142  (1905). 

Wiley,  et  al.  A  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Cold  Storage  on  Eggs, 
Quail,  and  Chickens.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  115  (igo8). 

Pennington.  Studies  of  Poultry  from  the  Farm  to  the  Consumer.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Circular  64 
(1910). 

Houghton.  Effect  of  Low  Temperatures  on  Ground  Chicken  Meat.  Jour- 
nal of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  497-506 
(1911). 

Oldys.  Game  Market  of  To-day.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  243-254  (191 1). 

Pennington  and  Hepburn.  The  Occurrence  and  Permanence  of  Lipase 
in  the  Fat  of  the  Common  Fowl  (Callus  domesticus).  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Circular  75  (1911). 

Pennington,  Witmer,  and  Pierce.  The  Comparative  Rate  of  Decom- 
position of  Drawn  and  Undrawn  Market  Poultry.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Circular  70  (1911). 

Pennington  and  Hepburn.  Studies  on  Chicken  Fat.  Journal  of  the 
American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  34,  pages  210-222  (1912). 

Pennington.  The  Hygienic  and  Economic  Results  of  Refrigeration  in  the 
Conservation  of  Poultry  and  Eggs.  American  Journal  of  Public  Health, 
Vol.  2,  pages  840-848  (191 3). 

Pennington.  The  Handling  of  Dressed  Poultry  a  Thousand  Miles  from 
the  Market.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for 
191 2,  pages  285-292  (1913). 

Pennington,  Greenlee,  et  al.  The  Refrigeration  of  Dressed  Poultry  in 
Transit.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  17  (1913). 


Fish  and  Shellfish 

Conn.  The  Outbreak  of  Typhoid  Fever  at  Wesleyan  University.  Con- 
necticut State  Board  of  Health,  Report  for  1894,  pages  243-264  (1894). 

Milner.  Digestibility  of  Fish  and  Poultry.  Storrs  (Conn.)  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Seventeenth  Annual  Report,  pages  116-142  (1905). 


POULTRY,   GAME,   FISH,   AND   SHELLFISH  249 

Bruhns.  Bacteriological  Condition  of  Market  Fish.  Archiv  fur  Hygiene, 
Vol.  67,  pages  209-236  (1909). 

Suzuki  and  Yoshimura.  Extractive  Substances  of  Fish  Flesh.  Zeitschrift 
fiir  physiologische  Chemie,  Vol.  62,  pages  1-35  (1909). 

BucHAN.  Typhoid  Fever  and  Mussel  Pollution.  Journal  of  Hygiene,  Vol. 
10,  pages  569-585  (iQio)- 

Millard.  Salmon  Fishing  in  Pacific  Waters.  The  Outlook  for  February, 
1910,  pages  171-181. 

Newlands  and  Ham.  Report  to  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Connecticut 
on  the  Sanitary  Investigation  of  Oyster  Grounds  in  the  New  Haven 
Harbor  (19 10). 

Stiles.  The  Value  of  the  Shellfish  Industry  and  the  Protection  of  Oysters 
from  Sewage  Contamination.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  371-378  (1910). 

BiGELOW  and  Bacon.  Tin  Salts  in  Canned  Foods  of  Low  Acid  Content, 
with  Special  Reference  to  Canned  Shrimp.  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  832-834  (191 1). 

Bitting.  Preparation  of  the  Cod  and  Other  Salt  Fish  for  the  Market. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulle- 
tin 133  (1911). 

BuTTENBERG.  Clams.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und 
Genussmittel,  Vol.  22,  pages  81-88  (191 1). 

Stiles.  The  Bacteriological  Examinations  of  Shucked  and  Shell  Oysters. 
Journal  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  Vol.  i,  pages  623- 
631  (1911)- 

Fahre-Domesque.  Bacteriological  Purification  of  Oysters  in  Filtered 
Water.  Comptes  Rendus  de  I'Academie  des  Sciences,  Paris,  Vol. 
154,  pages  1257-1259  (1912). 

GoRHAM.  Seasonal  Variation  in  the  Bacterial  Content  of  Oysters.  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Public  Health,  Vol.  2,  pages  24-27  (191 2). 

GoRHAM.  Sanitary  Regulation  of  the  Oyster  Industry.  American  Jour- 
nal of  PubHc  Health,  Vol.  2,  pages  77-85  (191 2). 

Hanson.  The  Packing  of  American  Sardines.  Original  Communications, 
Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  18,  pages 
131-138  (1912). 

LooMis.  Salmon  Canning  Industry  of  North  America.  Ibid.,  Vol.  18, 
pages  239-243  (191 2). 

Stiles.  Sewage-polluted  Oysters  as  a  Cause  of  Typhoid  and  Other  Gastro- 
intestinal Disturbances.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  156  (1912). 

Pease.     Hygienic  Results  of  Refrigeration  in  the  Conservation  of  Fish  and 


250  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Mollusks.     American  Journal  of  Public  Health,  Vol.  2,  pages  849-854 

(1912-1913). 
Smith.     Oysters;    The   World's  Most  Valuable   Water   Crop.     National 

Geographic  Magazine,  Vol.  24,  pages  257-281  (1913). 
Smith.     A  Study  of  the  Influence  of  Cold-storage  Temperatures  upon  the 

Chemical   Composition   and  Nutritive   Value  of  Fish.     Biochemical 

Bulletin,  Vol.  3,  pages  54-68  (1913). 
Perlzweig  and  Gies.     A  Further  Study  of  the  Chemical  Composition  and 

Nutritive  Value  of  Fish  Subjected  to  Prolonged  Periods  of  Cold  Storage. 

Biochemical  Bulletin,  Vol.  3,  pages  69-71  (1913). 
KoNiG  and   Grossfeld.     Fish   Roe   as   Food   for   Man.     Biochemisches 

Zeitschrift,  Vol.  54,  pages  351-394  (1913). 
PoLiMANTi.     Fat  Content  of  Fish  and  its  Biological  Significance  in  Relation 

to  their  Habitat.     Biochemisches  Zeitschrift,  Vol.  56,  pages  439-445 

(1914). 
Wilson.     The  Comparative  Chemistry  of  Muscle :  The  Partition  of  Non- 
Protein  Water-soluble  Nitrogen.     Journal  of  Biological    Chemistry 

Vol.  17,  pages  385-400  (1914). 
YosHiMtJRA  and  Kanai.     Nitrogenous  Constituents  of  Dried  Cod  Fish. 

Zeitschrift  fUr  physiologische  Chemie,  Vol.  88,  pages  346-351  (1914). 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GRAIN  PRODUCTS 

The  cereals  are  much  the  most  important  of  the  grains  used 
as  food  for  man,  but  since  a  few  grains  not  belonging  botanically 
to  the  cereals  are  used  for  food  (and  also  because  "  cereals  " 
suggests  only  breakfast  cereals  to  some  readers)  the  term  "  grain 
products  "  is  here  used  as  the  general  designation  to  cover 
barley,  buckwheat,  corn  or  maize,  oats,  rice,  rye,  and  wheat,  and 
the  various  mill  products  made  from  them. 

The  raising  of  grain  plays  a  very  large  part  in  the  agriculture 
of  nearly  all  countries,  and  for  the  great  majority  of  people 
grain  products  furnish  more  nutriment  than  does  any  other 
type  of  food  material.  Langworthy  estimates  from  the  results 
of  about  400  dietary  studies  that  grain  products  furnish  43.0 
per  cent  of  the  protein,  9.1  per  cent  of  the  fat,  and  61.8  per  cent 
of  the  carbohydrates  of  the  average  American  dietary.  Thus 
the  quantities  eaten  furnish  more  carbohydrate  and  more 
than  two  thirds  as  much  protein  as  all  other  food  materials 
together. 

In  the  United  States,  according  to  the  last  census  (Census  of 
19 10  covering  the  year  1909),  the  grains  represented  approxi- 
mately one  half  (exact  estimate,  48.6  per  cent)  of  the  entire  value 
of  all  farm  products.  Much  of  this  grain  is  fed  to  domestic 
animals,  and  the  amount  used  as  human  food  is  not  known. 
The  amount  of  grain  ground  or  milled  in  mills  large  enough  to 
be  classified  as  manufacturing  establishments  was  estimated  at 
806,247,961  bushels  and  the  product  valued  at  $883,584,405. 

251 


252  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

The  grains  of  most  importance  as  human  food  and  the  chief 
mill  products  of  each  will  be  considered  separately  in  the  para- 
graphs which  follow.  It  may,  however,  be  said  of  all  these 
grains  that  they  consist  chiefly  of  starch  embedded  in  a  network 
of  protein  material  and  protected  by  a  fibrous  coating  known  as 
the  bran.  A  small  part  of  the  grain  consists  of  the  germ,  which 
is  usually  much  less  starchy  and  much  richer  in  protein  and  fat 
than  the  body  of  the  kernel  (the  endosperm).  In  milling  the 
grains  for  human  food  the  outer  layers  and  the  germ  are  usually 
removed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  as  will  be  shown  more  fully 
below.  Only  in  the  case  of  wheat  shall  we  take  space  to  de- 
scribe the  milling  process. 

Barley  • 

The  cultivated  barleys  belong  to  two  or  three  different  species 
of  the  genus  Hordeum. 

The  barley  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1909  was  estimated 
at  173,000,000  bushels,  valued  at  $92,459,000.  It  was  grown 
principally  in  the  states  of  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  California, 
South  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa. 

The  grain  is  about  as  large  as  wheat,  one  hundred  kernels 
weighing  about  4  grams.  As  human  food  it  appears  in  this 
country  chiefly  in  the  form  of  "  pearled  barley,"  used  mainly 
in  soups,  and  "  patent  barley  flour  "  for  infant  feeding.  In 
making  pearled  barley  the  germ  and  most  of  the  bran  is  removed 
without  grinding  the  remainder  of  the  grain.  "  Patent  "  barley 
flour  is  a  finely  ground  product  representing  the  grain  from  which 
the  outer  layers  have  been  removed  more  completely  than  in 
making  pearled  barley,  but  perhaps  not  so  completely  as  in 
making  "  patent  "  flour  from  wheat.  The  following  are  com- 
parative analyses  of  barley  (the  entire  kernel),  pearled  barley 
and  patent  barley  flour  (Table  27). 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  253 

Table  27.     Composition  of  Barley  and  Barley  Flour 


"  Patent ' 
Barley 
Flour 


Moisture Per  cent 

Protein  (nitrogen  X  6.25)  .     .     Per  cent 
Fat  (ether  extract)  ....     Per  cent 
Carbohydrates  (by  difference)     Per  cent 
Fuel  value,  Calorics  per  pound    . 
Weight  of  loo-Caloric  portion, 

in  grams 

in  ounces    

Total  ash Per  cent 

Phosphorus  (calc.  as  P2O5)     .     Per  cent 
Iron  (calc.  as  Fe)     ....     Per  cent 


Barley 

(Entire 
Grain) 

Pearled 
Barley 

11.9 

"■3 

10.5 

8-5 

2.2 

I.I 

72.8 

77.8 

1610. 

1615. 

28. 

28. 

I.O 

1.0 

2.6 

1-3 

0-95 

0.46 

0.004 

0.0013 

10.3 
8.0 

1-7 
79-35 
1650. 

28. 
1.0 
0.65 
0.30 

O.OOIO 


Notice  in  what  respects  the  mill  products  differ  from  the 
original  grain,  and  compare  the  corresponding  data  for  other 
grain  products  beyond. 

Osborne  found  in  barley  an  alcohol  soluble  protein,  different 
from  that  of  wheat  or  of  rye,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  "  hor- 
dein."  The  products  of  hydrolysis  and  the  ultimate  composi- 
tion of  hordein  are  given  in  comparison  with  some  other  grain 
proteins  beyond.  The  albumin,  the  globulin,  and  the  proteose 
extracted  from  barley  were  judged  by  Osborne  to  be  probably 
identical  with  the  corresponding  proteins  found  in  wheat  and 
rye. 

Barley  which  has  begun  to  sprout  (called  malted  barley  or 
simply  "  malt  ")  is  rich  in  an  enzyme  which  digests  starch  with 
production  of  maltose.  Enzymes  which  digest  starch  are  called 
amylases,  commonly  also  "  diastases."  The  characteristic 
enzyme  of  malted  barley  is  commonly  called  malt  diastase. 
On  account  of  its  high  "  diastatic  power,"  due  to  abundance 
of  this  enzyme,  barley  malt  is  largely  used  in  the  fermentation 
industries  as  a  means  of  digesting  the  starch  (of  the  barley  itself 
and  often  also  of  other  grains)  into  fermentable  sugar.     More 


254 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


of  the  barley  grown  in  the  United  States  is  used  for  this  latter 
purpose  than  for  food. 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat,  the  seed  of  Fagopyrum  esculentum,  is  not  strictly 
a  cereal  (since  the  plant  which  bears  it  does  not  belong  to  the 
true  grasses)  but  for  practical  discussion  is  usually  grouped  with 
the  cereal  grains.  Although  more  popular  as  a  food  in  the  United 
States  than  elsewhere,  the  amount  grown  is  small  as  compared 
with  other  grains.  The  production  of  1909  was  estimated  at 
14,849,000  bushels,  and  valued  at  $9,331,000. 

The  buckwheat  kernel  is  about  as  large  as  that  of  wheat  or 
barley  and  is  characterized  by  its  different  shape  and  higher 
proportion  of  fiber  due  to  its  thick  protective  covering.  The 
latter  is  rejected  in  milling  the  grain  so  that  the  "  fine  "  buck- 
wheat flour  has  like  "  fine  "  wheat  flour  only  a  negligible  amount 
of  fiber  —  about  one  half  of  one  per  cent. 

Typical  American  analyses  of  buckwheat  and  buckwheat  flour 
are  as  follows  (Table  28) : 

Table  28.     Composition  of  Buckwheat  and  Buckwheat  Flour 


Buckwheat 
(Entire  Grain) 

Buckwheat 
Flo  UK 

Moisture 

Protein  (nitrogen  X  6.25)  .     .     . 
Fat 

.  Per  cent 
.  Per  cent 
.  Per  cent 
.  Per  cent 
.  Per  cent 
.  Per  cent 

12.3 
10.7 

2.0 
62.8 
10.7 

1.8 

II.9 

8.7 
1.6 

Carbohydrates  (other  than  fiber). 
Fiber 

76.2 
0.6 

Ash •   .     .     . 

I.O 

In  order  to  comply  with  the  standard  of  the  Association  of 
Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  buckwheat  flour  must  contain 
not  more  than  12  per  cent  moisture,  not  less  than  1.28  per  cent 
nitrogen,  and  not  more  than  1.75  per  cent  of  ash. 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  255 

Maize  or  Indian  Com  {Zea  mays) 

Maize  or  Indian  corn  (commonly  called  "  corn  "  in  the  United 
States,  though  the  word  corn  in  English  literature  usually  refers 
to  the  wheat  plant)  is  a  native  American  plant  and  has  long  been 
(economically)  the  most  important  single  crop  raised  in  the 
United  States.  The  area  annually  planted  to  maize  in  this 
country  is  said  to  be  nearly  equal  to  the  entire  area  of  France  or 
Germany.  A  normal  crop  is  estimated  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  3,000,000,000  bushels  and  valued 
at  something  over  $1,500,000,000.  The  Census  returns  for 
1909  showed  2,552,000,000  bushels  valued  at  $1,439,000,000. 
According  to  Census  reports,  corn  occupied,  in  1909,  20.6  per 
cent  of  the  improved  farm  land  of  the  country  and  contributed 
26.2  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  crops.  In  Illinois  and  Iowa 
about  one  third  of  the  improved  farm  land  is  occupied  by  corn, 
and  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Missouri  over  one  fourth.  The 
relative  distribution  of  corn  culture  throughout  the  United 
States  is  shown  in  Fig.  10  (Chapter  VI). 

Of  the  total  corn  crop  from  85  to  90  per  cent  is  fed  on  farms 
and  only  10  to  15  per  cent  comes  to  market.  According  to 
Census  returns  for  1909  only  209,281,237  bushels  of  corn  were 
ground  in  mills  large  enough  to  be  classed  as  manufacturing 
establishments.  In  addition  to  this,  however,  2,240,508,915 
pounds  (about  40,000,000  bushels)  of  corn  were  recorded  as  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  cornstarch  and  glucose. 

From  the  corn  ground  in  the  mills  covered  by  the  Census 
returns  there  were  produced  21,552,737  barrels  of  corn  meal 
and  corn  flour  valued  at  $66,941,095. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  corn  crop  there  is  an  enormous 
reserve  supply  of  material  suitable  for  human  food.  To  any 
extent  that  the  demand  for  corn  meal  makes  it  more  profitable 
for  the  farmer  to  sell  his  corn  to  the  miller  than  to  use  it  in  rais- 
ing and  fattening  farm  animals,  the  supply  of  corn  meal  can  be 


256 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


increased  up  to  about  ten  times  the  amount  now  milled  without 
necessarily  increasing  the  amount  of  land  devoted  to  corn  raising. 
To  use  for  human  food  a  large  proportion  of  the  corn  now  fed  to 
farm  animals,  would  of  course  diminish  somewhat  the  amount  of 
meat  produced,  but  as  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  V,  one  can 
never  recover  in  the  edible  flesh  of  the  carcass  more  than  a  small 
fraction  of  the  protein  and  energy  which  was  required  for  the 
growth  and  fattening  of  the  animal. 

The  following  approximate  analyses  (Table  29)  indicate  the 
more  significant  differences  in  composition  between  (i)  the  kernel 
as  a  whole,  (2)  the  "  old  process  "  corn  meal  made  by  grinding 
the  entire  kernel  and  sifting  out  only  the  larger  particles  of  bran, 
(3)  the  "  new  process  "  corn  meal  in  the  making  of  which  the 
bran  is  inore  completely  removed  and  the  germ  is  also  rejected. 

Table  29.     Analyses  of  Corn  and  Corn  Meal 


Corn  (En- 

Old Process 

New  Process 

tire  Kernel) 

Corn  Meal 

Corn  Meal 

Moisture Per  cent 

10.7 

11.6 

12.0 

Protein  (nitrogen  X  6.25)  .     .  Per  cent 

10.0 

9.0 

7.8 

Fat Per  cent 

4-3 

4-3 

1-3 

Carbohydrate     (other     than 

fiber) Per  cent 

71.8 

72.5 

78.S 

Fiber Per  cent 

1-7 

i-S 

0.8 

Ash Per  cent 

i-S 

1-3 

0.6 

Phosphorus  (calc.  as  P2O5)     .  Per  cent 

0.7 

0.7 

0.22 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  the  standards  proposed  by  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  corn  meal  must 
contain  not  more  than  14  per  cent  of  moisture,  not  less  than 
1. 1 2  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  not  more  than  1.6  per  cent  of  ash. 

The  establishment  of  official  grades  and  standards  for  corn 
itself  is  now  under  consideration  in  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


257 


The  composition  of  the  corn  kernel  can  be  altered  by  breeding 
and  selection.  Hopkins  and  Smith  of  Illinois  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  starting  with  corn  containing  10.92  per  cent 
protein  and  4.70  per  cent  fat  have  by  breeding  and  selection 
through  ten  years  (ten  generations  of  the  corn  plant)  produced 
a  "  high  protein  "  strain  with  14.26  per  cent  protein  and  a  "  low 
protein  "  strain  with  8.64  per  cent  of  protein ;  also  a  "  high  fat  " 
strain  with  7.37  per  cent,  and  a  "  low  fat  "  strain  with  2.66  per 
cent  of  fat. 

Osborne  finds  that  corn  contains  an  albumin,  at  least  three 
globulins,  a  proteose  similar  to  that  in  wheat,  an  alcohol-soluble 
protein  (different  from  those  of  other  grains)  to  which  the  name 
zein  has  been  given,  and  an  insoluble  glutelin.  The  zein  and 
glutelin  are  included  in  the  discussion  of  chemical  structure  and 
food  value  of  grain  proteins  beyond. 

A  maize  kernel  of  the  varieties  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  has  about  ten  times  the  weight  of  a  kernel  of  wheat. 
Like  the  latter  it  has  a  fibrous  outer  skin  beneath  which  is  a 
layer  rich  in  protein  and  phosphorus  compounds  which  is  often 
called  the  gluten  layer;  within  these  outer  layers  lie  the 
germ,  constituting  about  one  tenth,  and  the  endosperm,  which 
makes  up  between  eight  tenths  and  nine  tenths  of  the  entire 
kernel. 

Table  30.     CoMPOsmoN  of  Corn  Kernel  and  its  Parts  (Wagner) 


Part 

Propor- 
tion OF 
the  Whole 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrate 

OTHER 
THAN 

Fiber 

Fiber 

Ash 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Percent 

Ptr  cent 

Per  cent 

Original  kernel 
Skin      .     .     . 

lOO.O 

S-S 

12.6 
6.6 

4-3 
1.6 

79-4 
74.1 

2.0 
16.4 

1-7 
1-3 

Germ 

10.2 

21.7 

29.6 

34-7 

2.9 

11. 1 

Endosperm     . 

84-3 

12.2 

i-S 

85.0 

0.6 

0.7 

258  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

The  bran  obtained  in  the  ordinary  grinding  of  corn  includes 
along  with  the  fibrous  hull  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  so- 
called  gluten  layer.  When  the  corn  kernel  is  soaked  to  loosen 
the  skin,  the  latter  may  be  removed  alone,  leaving  the  starchy 
and  the  "  glutenous  "  parts  of  the  endosperm  together.  Wagner 
gives  the  above  analyses  of  the  skin,  the  germ,  and  the  en- 
dosperm as  thus  separated  (Table  30). 

We  have  spoken  of  the  hull  as  fibrous  covering,  yet  the  above 
analysis  indicates  that  the  fiber  constitutes  only  about  one 
fifth  of  the  total  carbohydrate  of  the  hull.  This  is  partly  be- 
cause only  the  fiber  sufficiently  resistant  to  remain  after  suc- 
cessive boiling  with  acid  and  alkali  is  reported  as  "  fiber  "  in  the 
analysis,  while  all  the  material  (other  than  protein,  fat,  and  ash) 
which  is  dissolved  by  the  acid  or  the  alkali  is  reported  as  "  car- 
bohydrate other  than  fiber  "  or  as  "  nitrogen-free  extract."  The 
latter  therefore  includes  not  only  the  starch,  but  also  the  pen- 
tosans and  much  of  the  so-called  lignin  or  lignone  substances, 
which  in  their  chemical  nature  are  not  strictly  carbohydrate  but 
which  are  usually  grouped  with  the  carbohydrates  because  of 
their  close  association  with  cellulose.  The  material  designated 
in  the  table  as  carbohydrate  other  than  fiber  is  therefore  quite 
different  for  different  parts  of  the  kernel :  in  the  hull  it  is 
chiefly  pentosan;  in  the  endosperm,  chiefly  starch;  in  the 
germ  there  is  much  less  starch  and  an  appreciable  amount 
of  sugar. 

The  chief  differences  in  composition  among  the  different 
parts  of  the  corn  kernel  may  be  summarized  a  follows :  The  hulls 
contain  much  fiber  and  wood  gum  (pentosans)  and  relatively 
little  starch,  protein,  or  fat ;  the  endosperm  is  rich  in  starch,  low 
in  fiber,  relatively  poor  in  fat  and  ash,  and  has  about  the  same 
percentage  of  protein  as  the  entire  kernel ;  the  germ  contains 
little  starch,  but  is  rich  in  fat,  protein,  and  ash.  The  fat  is  liquid 
at  ordinary  temperatures  and  therefore  usually  referred  to  as 
oil.     It  is  classed  as  a  "  semi-drying  "  oil,  being  intermediate 


^^      ->  t=>yy*** 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  259 

in  properties  between  olive  oil  and  linseed  oil.  The  chemical 
nature  and  nutritive  value  of  the  proteins  and  ash  constituents 
will  be  discussed  along  with  those  of  wheat  farther  on  in  this 
chapter. 

The  industrial  process  of  separating  and  refining  the  chief 
components  of  corn  will  now  be  described  in  brief  outline. 

Of  an  average  corn  crop  of  about  3,000,000,000  bushels  it  is  esti- 
mated that  about  nine  tenths  will  be  used  on  the  farms  and  about 
one  tenth  or  300,000,000  bushels  will  be  sold.  The  corn  sold 
is  sometimes  referred  to  as  "  cash  corn."  Of  all  the  corn  which 
leaves  the  farm,  the  milling  and  fermentation  industries  together 
take  about  five  sixths,  and  nearly  one  sixth,  or  40,000,000  to 
50,000,000  bushels  per  year,  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  corn 
starch,  corn  sirup,  etc.,  as  described  below.  or-    jXa/j-  ^ 

Manufacture  of  Starch  and  Other  Products  from  Com 

The  corn  is  first  cleaned  and  sent  to  steeping  tanks,  where 
it  is  soaked  (steeped)  for  about  2  days  in  warm  water  to 
which  has  been  added  a  small  amount  of  sulphurous  acid 
to  prevent  putrefaction  and  assist  in  the  loosening  of  the 
hull. 

This  steeping  causes  the  corn  to  swell,  and  brings  about  a 
softening  of  the  endosperm  which  facilitates  the  subsequent 
separation  of  the  germ. 

The  steeped  grain  is  then  coarsely  ground  in  mills  so  arranged 
as  to  disintegrate  the  kernel  without  breaking  the  germ.  The 
type  known  as  the  Foos  or  Fuss  mill,  in  which  the  grain  is  torn 
to  pieces  by  passing  between  parallel  studded  plates  which 
revolve  in  opposite  directions,  is  generally  used. 

The  ground  mass  is  then  run  into  the  "  separators,"  which 
are  long  tanks  or  vats  containing  a  mixture  of  starch  and  water 
of  a  density  of  8°  Baume  (1.06  specific  gravity).  The  germs,  on 
account  of  the  oil  which  they  contain,  float  on  this  liquid,  while 
the  hulls  and  starch  granules  tend  to  settle  to  the  bottom.     The 


26o  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

separation  is  a  continuous  process,  the  ground  mass  being  in- 
troduced at  one  end  of  the  tank  while  at  the  other  end  the  germs 
float  off  at  the  top  and  the  other  constituents  are  drawn  off  from 
the  bottom. 

The  germs  are  repeatedly  washed  with  water  to  remove  any 
adhering  starch,  then  dried  in  revolving  steam  dryers  and  the 
oil  extracted  by  pressure.  At  present  the  oil  is  employed  to  only 
a  small  extent  for  food,  the  greater  part  being  used  in  making 
soaps  and  soap  powders,  in  the  tanning  industry,  in  paint  and 
putty,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  substitutes  and  water- 
proofing and  insulating  materials.  Oil  cake,  as  the  mass  remain- 
ing after  pressing  the  dried  germs  for  oil  is  called,  contains  still 
a  considerable  amount  of  fat  and  is  very  rich  in  protein.  At 
present  most  of  this  oil  cake  is  exported  to  Europe,  where  it  is 
used  in  stock-feeding,  perhaps  after  removal  of  a  further  portion 
of  oil.  In  view  of  the  high  food  value  of  the  germ  and  the  fact 
that  it  constitutes  about  one  tenth  of  the  entire  grain,  it  seems 
unfortunate  that  it  enters  so  little  into  human  consumption. 

The  coarsely  ground  mass  drawn  off  from  the  bottoms  of 
the  separator  tanks  as  described  above,  and  which  represents 
all  of  the  corn  except  the  germ  and  the  water-soluble  substances, 
is  reground  in  burr-stone  mills  ("  Buhr  "  mills)  and  the  semi- 
liquid  mass  passed  over  "  shakers."  These  are  mechanically 
shaken  sieves  of  bolting  cloth  of  about  200  mesh  which  sift 
out  the  particles  of  hull  while  the  starch  granules  and  most  of 
the  protein  pass  through.  The  hulls  are  sprayed  with  water 
while  on  the  sieves  and  are  usually  reground  and  the  process 
repeated  two  or  three  times  to  complete  the  removal  of  the  starch 
fronflhe  particles  of  hull.  The  final  disposition  of  the  hull  is 
described  in  the  paragraph  on  by-products  below. 

The  liquid  which  has  passed  through  the  "  shakers,"  and 
which  contains  practically  all  of  the  starch  and  most  of  the  pro- 
tein of  the  corn,  is  known  as  the  raw  starch  liquor.  This  is 
adjusted  to  density  of  4°  to  5°  Baume  (1.03  to  1.045  specific 


GRAIN   PRODUCTS  26 1 

gravity)  and  then  passed  into  very  long  flat-bottomed  tanks 
known  as  "  runs  "  or  "  tables."  These  are  almost  level,  being 
usually  100  to  120  feet  long  and  inclined  only  about  4  inches. 
As  the  raw  starch  liquor  flows  slowly  down  the  run,  the  starch 
granules  settle  out  gradually  and  in  rolling  along  the  bottom 
before  finally  coming  to  rest  they  tend  to  rub  each  other  free 
from  adherent  protein.  The  length  and  inclination  of  the  "  runs  " 
and  the  concentration  of  the  raw  starch  liquor  are  so  adjusted 
that  nearly  all  of  the  starch  settles  before  reaching  the  lower 
end  of  the  run,  while  most  of  the  protein  remains  suspended  in 
the  water  which  flows  out  and  which  is  known  as  the  "  gluten 
liquor."  The  solids  of  this  "  gluten  liquor  "  are  recovered  in 
the  gluten  feed  described  in  the  paragraph  on,, by-products 
below.  '  --^ 

When  the  "  gluten  liquor  "  has  been  drained  ofif  from  the 
"  run  "  the  starch  which  has  settled  is  found  in  j^very  compact 
deposit  which  may  be  dug  out  in  blocks  like  stiff  wet  clay.  As 
taken  from  the  "  tables  "  or  "  runs  "  it  is  known  as  "  green 
starch."  This  may  be  utilized  directly  for  the  manufacture 
of  glucose  or  corn  sirup.  To  refin^  the  "  green_starch  "  for 
eating  or  for  industrial  use  it  is  stirred  with  water  and  again 
sent  over  the  "  run,"  or  washed  more  quickly  by  decantation, 
according  to  the  degree  to  which  the  starch  is  to  be  freed  from 
protein  ;  or  in  preparation  for  certain  purposes  it  may  be  washed 
with  dilute  alkali.  The  latter  is  more  effective  in  removing 
the  protein  than  is  water  alone,  but  the  subsequent  removal 
of  the  alkali  from  the  starch  is  difficult.  Being  used  for  many 
industrial  purposes  as  well  as  for  food,  starch  and  dextrin  are 
prepared  in  a  variety  of  forms  the  description  of  which  does  not 
come  within  the  scope  of  this  book. 

For  the  manufacture  of  commercial  glucose,  the  "  green 
starch  "  is  stirred  with  water  to  make  a  suspension  of  a  density 
of  about  20°  to  22°  Baume  (1.16  to  1.18  specific  gravity),  to 
which  is  added  hydrochloric  acid  in  such  proportion  as  to  make 


262  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

about  O.I  per  ypnt  r>f  nrti^nl  nnVl  in  the  entire  mixture.  This 
mixture  is  treated  with  superheated  steam  in  strong  metal 
cylinders  called  converters.  The  converters  now  in  use  are  six 
feet  in  diameter  and  may  be  as  much  as  twenty  feet  high.  By 
running  in  superheated  steam  up  to  a  pressure  of  35  pounds  per 
square  inch,  the  hydrolysis  of  the  starch  is  greatly  accelerated 
and  is  brought  to  the  desired  point  in  a  few  minutes.  The 
pressure  is  then  released  and  the  acid  neutralized  with  sodiurn_ 
carbonate.  The  neutral  solution  is  then  filtered  clear,  concen- 
trated by  evaporation,  decolorized  by  running  through  bone- 
black  filters  like  those  used  in  the  refining  of  cane  sugar  (Chapter 
XI) ,  and  finally  evaporated  further  to  a  viscous  sirup  containing 
80  per  cent  or  more  of  solids. 
The  average  composition  of  this  sirup  according  to  Wagner  is : 

Per  Cent  j 

Water 19.0 

Glucose  (Dextrose) 38.5 

Dextrin  ...  - 42.0 

Ash 0.5 

In  this  case  it  is  assumed  that  glucose  (dextrose)  is  the  only 
reducing  sugar  present.  According  to  Rolfe  and  Defren,  how- 
ever, there  would  be  present  at  the  stage  of  hydrolysis  reached 
in  this  process,  a  considerable  amount  of  maltose,  so  that  the 
actual  percentage  of  glucose  would  be  less  than  that  given  by 
Wagner.  In  any  case  it  will  be  seen  that  considerably  less  than 
half  of  the  carbohydrate  material  is  actually  in  the  form  of 
glucose.  This  product  is  called  "  commercial  glucose "  or 
"  corn  sirup  " ;  to  call  it  simply  glucose  is  obviously  inaccurate 
and  contrary  to  the  regulation  that  a  food  product  which  is  a 
mixture  must  not  be  sold  under  the  name  of  a  single  constituent. 

The  manufacture  of  purified  corn  starch  and  of  corn  sirup  or 
commercial  glucose  are  usually  carried  on  in  the  same  factories. 
Both  industries  have  developed  rapidly  in  recent  years.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Census  report  there  were  produced  in  the-^  United 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 

States,  in  1909:  638,825,366  pounds  of  corn  starch  valued  at 
$15,962,916;  769,660,210  pounds  of  commercial  glucose  sirups 
valued  at  $17,922,514;  159,060,478  pounds  of  solid  glucose 
valued  at  $3,620,816;  8,164,175  gallons  of  corn  oil  valued  at 
$2,802,768;  $6,013,968  worth  of  stock  food  and  $924,422  worth 
of  miscellaneous  by-products  of  this  industry. 

The  characteristics  and  uses  of  commercial  glucose  sirup  will 
be  considered  further  in  Chapter  XI. 

By-products.  In  addition  to  the  starches,  sirups,  and  glucose 
sugars  which  may  be  considered  the  direct  products  of  this  in- 
dustry, we  have  already  discussed  the  utilization  of  the  corn  oil 
and  the  oil  cake  or  germ  meal.  The  washed  hulls,  the  "  gluten 
liquor,"  and  the  soluble  substances  extracted  when  the  corn 
was  steeped  in  warm  water  at  the  beginning  of  the  process  remain 
to  be  considered. 

While  giving  the  composition  of  the  isolated  skin  of  the  corn 
kernel  as  in  Table  30  above  Wagner  states  that  the  corn  hulls 
obtained  in  the  process  just  described  contain  when  dry  as  much 
as  14  per  cent  protein  and  may  therefore  be  considered  as  a  cattle 
food  of  considerable  value.  The  custom,  however,  is  not  to 
market  the  hulls  alone,  but  to  mix  them  with  the  protein  obtained 
from  the  liquor  which  has  passed  over  the  runs. 

When  the  solids  of  the  "  gluten  liquor  "  are  dried  alone,  there 
is  obtained  a  "  gluten  meal  "  which  averages  over  40  per  cent 
of  protein.  Usually,  however,  the  gluten  meal,  the  hulls,  and 
the  concentrated  steep-water  are  dried  together. 

The  steep-water  contains  the  greater  part  of  all  the  constit- 
uents of  the  corn  which  are  readily  soluble  in  slightly  acidulated 
water,  such  as  the  ready-formed  sugars  of  the  kernel,  some  of  the 
proteins,  the  "  nitrogenous  extractives,"  much  of  the  organic 
phosphorus  compounds  such  as  phytin,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  ash  constituents.  The  following  partial  analysis  of  the 
solids  of  the  steep- water  (also  called  "  corn  solubles  ")  is  given 
by  Wagner : 


264  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Per  Cent 

Nitrogenous  substances 38-43 

Reducing  sugars  as  dextrose 25-30 

Phosphorus  (calc.  as  PoOb) 6-8 

Potash  (K2O)         5-6 

Magnesia  (MgO) 2-3 

The  general  similarity  of  this  material  to  meat  extract  and 
yeast  extracts  suggests  that  it  may  have  an  interesting  future  in 
the  food  industries.  At  present  the  steep-water  is  concentrated, 
mixed  with  the  wet  hulls  and  the  solids  of  the  "  gluten  liquor," 
and  the  whole  dried,  ground,  and  sold  as  "  gluten  feed."  The 
average  composition  of  this  gluten  feed  is  given  by  Wagner  as 
follows : 

Per  Cent 

Moisture 1036 

Protein 25.95 

Fat        2.18 

Starch 18.09 

Fiber 6.50 

Other  carbohydrates 33-22 

Ash 3.70 

The  more  efficient  the  factory  the  higher  is  the  percentage 
of  protein  and  the  lower  the  percentage  of  starch  and  vice  versa. 

Oats 

Oats  belong  to  different  species  of  the  genus  Avena,  the  kind 
commonly  ■  cultivated  being  Avena  saliva.  Oats  culture  is 
widely  distributed  over  Europe  and  America,  and  the  grain  very 
generally  used  both  as  human  food  and  for  feeding  farm  animals. 

According  to  census  reports  the  oat  crop  of  the  United  States 
in  1909  was  1,007,000,000  bushels  valued  at  $415,000,000. 
Of  the  total  oat  crop  about  one  twentieth  (50,241,598  bushels) 
was  reported  among  the  materials  used  by  the  milling  industry, 
and  an  unknown  amount  was  used  in  the  manufacture  of  specially 
prepared  "  breakfast  foods." 

The  husk  of  the  oat  adheres  closely  to  the  grain  and  is  not 


GRAIN   PRODUCTS 


265 


usually  removed  before  sending  the  grain  to  market.  The 
following  analyses  of  oats  with  and  without  the  husks  and  of 
oatmeal  as  ordinarily  ground  are  from  bulletins  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Table  31.     Analyses  of  Oats  and  Oat  Products 


Moisture Per  cent 

Protein Per  cent 

Fat Per  cent 

Fiber Per  cent 

Carbohydrates,      other 

than  fiber    .     .     .  Per  cent 
Ash Per  cent 


Oats,  en- 
tire Ker- 
nel WITH 
Husk 

Oat 
Kernel 

WITHOUT 

Husk 

Oatmeal 

10.06 

6-93 

7-3 

12.15 

14-31 

r6.i 

4-33 

8.14 

7-2 

12.07 

1.38 

0.9 

57-93 

67.09 

67-5 

346 

2-IS 

1.9 

Rolled 
Oats 


7-7 
16.7 

7-3 
1-3 

66.2 
2.1 


It  is  evident  from  these  averages  that  in  general  oatmeal  and 
rolled  oats  have  about  the  same  composition  and  represent  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  oat  kernel.  In  the  making  of  these  products 
the  chaffy  husk  is  of  course  eliminated  and  with  it  is  usually 
removed  a  portion  of  the  skin  of  the  kernel,  and  sometimes  the 
tips  of  the  kernels  are  also  scoured  off,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  germ  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  outer  layers  of  the  kernel 
remain  in  the  product  offered  for  sale.  Oatmeal  and  rolled  oats 
are  therefore  relatively  rich  in  fat  as  well  as  in  protein,  and  are 
somewhat  more  concentrated  foods,  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  energy  value  and  protein  content,  than  are  the  other  staple 
grain  products. 

The  proteins  of  oats  have  proven  particularly  difficult  to 
purify  and  have  therefore  not  yet  been  studied  so  thoroughly  as 
have  some  of  the  other  grain  proteins. 

Farther  on  in  this  chapter  the  nutritive  value  of  oat  products 
and  their  place  in  the  diet  will  be  considered  in  connection  with 
the  same  characteristics  of  other  grain  products. 


266 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Rice  (Oryza  sativa) 

If  the  population  of  the  entire  globe  be  considered,  rice  is 
probably  the  most  used  as  human  food  of  all  the  grains,  since 
it  enters  so  largely  into  the  dietary  of  the  people  of  India,  China, 
and  Japan. 

In  the  United  States  rice  plays  the  part  only  of  a  minor  cereal, 
but  its  cultivation  is  increasing,  especially  in  Louisiana  and  Texas. 
Smaller  areas  are  devoted  to  rice  culture  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States.  The  production  of  rough  rice  (rice  before  milling  or 
polishing)  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was  estimated  at  21,839,- 
cxx)  bushels,  and  the  value  at  $16,020,000. 

Rice  has  been  commonly  marketed  in  this  country  either,  (i) 
unhuUed,  i.e.  with  the  chaffy  husk  still  covering  the  kernel ; 
(2)  "  cured,"  freed  from  husk  but  not  from  bran  ;  (3)  polished 
(white).  The  following  comparative  analyses  (Table  32)  of  rice 
in  these  three  conditions  are  from  Bulletin  13,  Bureau  of  Chemis- 
try, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  except  the  figures 
for  phosphorus,  which  have  been  added  by  the  author. 

Table  32-.     Analyses  of  Rice 


Weight  of  100  kernels    ....     Grams 

Moisture Per  cent 

Protein Per  cent 

Fat Per  cent 

Fiber Per  cent 

Carbohydrates  other  than  fiber    .  Per  cent 

Ash Per  cent 

Phosphorus  calc.  as  P2O6    .     .     .  Per  cent 


Unhulled 
Rice 

"  Cured  " 
Rice 

2.929 
10.28 

2.466 
11.88 

7-95 
1. 65 

8.02 
1.96 

10.42 
65.60 

0.93 
76.0s 

4.09 

IIS 
0.65 

Polished 
Rice 


2.132 

12.34 
7.18 
0.26 
0.40 

7936 
0.46 
0.20 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  "pohshing  "  of  the  rice  kernel  removes 
only  about  one  eighth  of  its  weight  but  more  than  half  of  its 
ash  constituents.     The  ash  in  both  cases  is  composed  chiefly 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  267 

of  phosphates,  about  one  half  of  the  weight  of  ash  being  P2O5. 
It  has  been  known  for  some  time,  especially  in  Japan  and  the 
Philippines,  that  a  diet  consisting  chiefly  of  polished  rice  is  likely 
to  result  in  the  disease  beriberi,  and  by  careful  observation  and 
experiment  it  was  decided  that  rice  which  had  been  polished  so 
as  to  contain  less  than  0.40  per  cent  of  P2O5  was  unsafe  for 
use  as  the  chief  article  of  food,  as  rice  often  is  used  in  those 
countries.  The  frequency  with  which  beriberi  follows  a  de- 
ficient diet,  such  as  one  consisting  mainly  of  highly  polished  rice, 
and  the  certainty  with  which  it  can  be  prevented  by  simply 
substituting  unpolished  (also  called  "  cured ")  rice,  shows 
plainly  that  the  removal  of  the  outer  portions  of  the  rice  kernel 
as  in  the  "  polishing  "  process  results  in  a  deficiency  of  some 
substance  or  substances  which  occur  in  that  part  of  the  grain 
and  which  are  important  for  the  maintenance  of  health.  Beri- 
beri is  therefore  considered  typical  of  the  "  deficiency  diseases." 
The  limit  to  which  rice  may  be  "  refined  "  without  becoming 
markedly  deficient  has  been  determined  in  terms  of  its  phos- 
phorus content,  and  it  is  altogether  probable  that  a  diet  of  polished 
rice  taken  in  sufficient  quantity  to  furnish  all  the  energy  re- 
quired in  nutrition  would  fail  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of 
phosphorus.  Recent  experiments  indicate,  however,  that  so 
far  as  beriberi  is  concerned,  the  deficiency  of  the  polished  rice 
is  due  more  particularly  to  the  removal  of  certain  non-protein 
nitrogen  compounds  to  which  the  general  term  "  vitamin es  " 
has  been  given.  Those  who  desire  to  study  this  subject  further 
may  be  referred  to  Vedder's  book  Beriberi  (New  York,  19 13) 
and  to  the  journal  literature  cited  in  the  references  given  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter. 

Partly  as  a  result  of  the  interest  aroused  by  the  rather  striking 
demonstration  in  the  Philippines  of  the  impoverishment  of  rice 
by  the  complete  removal  of  the  outer  layers  to  make  a  white 
product,  "  cured  "  or  "  brown  "  rice  is  now  being  introduced 
in  the  grocery  trade. 


268  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Rye  {Secale  cereale) 

Rye  is  said  to  be  the  hardiest  of  the  cereals  and  in  parts  of 
Europe  is  more  commonly  used  as  a  bread-making  material  than 
wheat.  The  United  States  produces  less  than  one  twentieth 
as  much  rye  as  wheat,  the  rye  crop  for  igog  being  29,520,000 
bushels  valued  at  $20,422,000.  The  census  of  manufactures 
for  the  same  year  shows  11,503,969  bushels  of  rye  used  and 
1,532,139  barrels  of  rye  flour  produced  by  the  flour  and  grist 
mills  large  enough  to  be  listed  as  manufacturing  establishments. 
The  mean  composition  of  20  samples  of  rye  (18  of  which  were 
grown  in  the  United  States)  analyzed  at  the  World's  Fair  at 
Chicago  in  1893  was  as  follows: 

Weight  of  100  kernels Grams     2.516 

Moisture Per  cent  10.77 

Protein Per  cent  12.26 

Fat Per  cent     1.58 

Fiber Per  cent    2.08 

Carbohydrates,  other  than  fiber     .     .     .     .     .  Per  cent  71.42 

Ash Per  cent     1.92 

In  bread-making  qualities  rye  approaches  wheat  more  nearly 
than  does  any  other  grain. 

Osborne  has  investigated  the  proteins  of  rye  and  reports  that 
they  are  similar  to,  but  not  identical  with,  those  of  wheat. 
The  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  gummy  carbohydrate  in  rye 
makes  the  separation  and  purification  of  the  rye  proteins  un- 
usually difficult.  Only  the  alcohol-soluble  protein  (prolamin) 
of  the  rye  has  been  obtained  satisfactorily  purified  in  sufficient 
quantity  for  examination  by  modern  methods.  The  products 
of  its  hydrolysis  are  shown  in  comparison  with  those  of  wheat 
and  maize  proteins  beyond. 

Wheat 

Wheat  is  the  typical  bread-making  grain  and  the  one  most 
used  for  human  food  in  the  United  States,  in  English-speaking 
countries  generally,  and  in  probably  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  269 

The  different  cultivated  varieties  of  wheat  all  belong  to  the  same 
genus  {Triticum),  but  not  all  to  one  species.  The  wheat  most 
commonly  grown  in  America  is  Triticum  vulgare,  and  probably 
the  next  most  important  from  our  standpoint  is  Triticum  durum, 
which  is  valuable  because  of  its  ability  to  resist  drouth  and  also 
because  of  yielding  a  flour  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  macaroni. 
Wheat  is  often  classified  as  "  hard  "  or  "  soft,"  as  "  spring  " 
or  "  winter  "  wheat,  and  also  according  to  the  locality  in  which 
it  is  grown. 

Winter  wheat  is  sown  in  the  autumn  in  regions  where  the 
winter  is  not  severe,  and  matures  early  in  the  summer.  Spring 
wheat,  which  is  grown  mainly  in  the  Northwestern  states,  in- 
cluding Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  and  in  Canada,  is  sown  in 
the  spring  and  matures  in  the  late  summer.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  both  classes,  and  the  composition  and  properties 
vary  with  variety  and  environment.  As  a  rule,  winter  wheats 
are  softer  and  somewhat  more  starchy ;  the  spring  wheats  harder 
and  slightly  richer  in  protein.  In  general  a  rather  hard  wheat 
of  more  than  average  protein  content  is  preferred  for  the  manu- 
facture of  bread  flour,  but  the  wheats  with  most  protein  do  not 
necessarily  make  the  best  flour,  since  the  bread-making  quality 
depends  upon  the  nature  and  quantitative  relationship  of  the 
proteins  and  not  simply  on  the  amount  present. 

In  bulk  and  value  of  crop,  wheat  ranks  second  to  corn  in 
production  in  the  United  States,  but  in  quantity  sold  from  the 
farms  and  sent  into  commerce  it  ranks  first  among  the  grains. 
The  last  United  States  Census  shows  a  production  in  1909  of 
683,000,000  bushels  valued  at  $658,000,000. 

The  states  contributing  most  largely  to  this  total  were  North 
Dakota,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  and  South  Dakota,  these  four 
states  having  over  two  fifths  of  the  wheat  acreage  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Census  returns  for  exports  of  wheat  and  flour  for  the  year 
corresponding  to  the  crop  of  1909  show  the  equivalent  of  87,364,- 


270 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


000  bushels  of  wheat,  or  practically  one  eighth  of  the  amount 
raised.  The  amount  consumed  in  the  United  States  may  there- 
fore be  estimated  at  about  6.5  bushels  per  person  per  year. 
Apparently  the  per  capita  consumption  of  wheat  is  nearly  the 
same  in  America  and  in  England,  Hutchison's  estimate  from 
English  data  being  6  bushels. 

Census  returns  show  496,480,314  bushels  of  wheat  ground  in 
1909  in  flour  and  grist  mills  in  the  United  States  large  enough 
to  be  classed  as  manufacturing  establishments.  The  corre- 
sponding production  of  flour  was  105,756,645  barrels  valued  at 
$550,116,254. 

The  structure  of  the  wheat  kernel  is  doubtless  already  familiar 
to  most  readers  of  this  book.     We  shall  therefore  not  repeat  the 


Fig.    20.  —  Diagram  of  grain  of  wheat,   longitudinal   and   transverse   sections. 
a,  bran  ;  b,  aleurone  layer ;  c,  starch  cells  of  endosperm ;  d,  germ. 


description  here,  and  it  must  be  understood  that  this  paragraph 
is  not  intended  as  an  adequate  description  but  only  as  a  reminder 
of  a  few  of  the  points  which  are  to  be  kept  in  mind  when  con- 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  271 

sidering  the  production  and  composition  of  the  mill  products. 
It  should  also  be  clearly  understood  that  Fig.  20,  representing 
some  features  in  the  structure  of  the  wheat  kernel,  is  only  a 
diagram  to  illustrate  these  few  points  and  is  not  intended  as 
a  complete  picture.  The  bran,  which  is  actually  composed  of 
several  layers,  is  shown  at  a.  The  square  cells  of  the  aleurone 
layer  are  shown  at  b,  while  c  represents  the  endosperm  made  up 
chiefly  of  "  starch  cells  "  which,  however,  always  contain  protein 
as  well  as  starch.  The  germ  or  embryo,  d,  is  shown  at  one  end 
of  the  longitudinal  section,  but  does  not  appear  in  the  transverse 
section,  since  the  germ  does  not  extend  to  the  middle  of  the  kernel. 
The  deep  crease  extending  from  end  to  end  of  the  wheat  kernel 
increases  the  surface  considerably  so  that  the  percentage  of  bran 
and  of  aleurone  layer  is  larger  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  bran  proper  (including  epidermis, 
epicarp,  endocarp,  and  testa)  constitutes  about  5  per  cent,  the 
aleurone  layer  about  8  per  cent,  the  germ  with  its  membrane 
about  s  per  cent,  and  the  "  starch  cells  "  about  82  per  cent  of 
the  entire  grain.  The  ""bran  "  obtained  in  milling  may  con- 
tain not  only  the  bran  proper,  but  also  the  germ  and  more  or 
less  of  the  aleurone  layer,  depending  upon  the  processes  employed. 
The  flour  obtained  in  ordinary  milling  contains  more  or  less 
of  the  aleurone  layer,  which  is  rich  in  protein  and  in  phosphorus  _ 
compounds,  and  most  of  the  "  starch  cells  "  of  the  original  kernel. 
From  the  relative  proportions  in  which  these  exist  in  the  grain 
it  is  evident  that  much  the  larger  part  of  ordinary  white  flour 
must  consist  of  these  starch  cells,  and  their  general  nature  should 
therefore  be  kept  in  mind.  Each  cell  contains  hundreds  of 
starch  granules  of  various  sizes  embedded  in  a  network  of  pro- 
toplasmic material  composed  essentially  of  protein  matter,  in 
this  case  chiefly  gliadin  and  glutenin,  the  proteins  which  to- 
gether form  the  characteristic  gluten  of  wheat  flour.  The  ac- 
companying diagrams  (Fig.  21)  published  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  illustrate  respectively  the  proto- 


272 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


plasmic  structure  or  protein  components  of  the  cell  and  the 
starch  granules  which  are  found  deposited  in  it.  A  view  through 
both  of  these  diagrams  would  represent  the  structure  and  com- 
position of  the  "  starch  cell  "  as  a  whole.  It  should  be  clear  that 
even  the  whitest  and  most  starchy  part  of  the  wheat  kernel  con- 
tains a  significant  amount  of  protein. 

The  granules  of  wheat  starch  vary  greatly  in  size  —  in  fact, 
this  is  one  of  the  properties  by  which  wheat  flour  is  identified 


Fig.  21.  —  Diagram  of  "starch  cells"  or  "flour  cells"  of  wheat, 
network  of  protein ;  B,  showing  starch  granules. 


A,  showing 


imder  the  microscope.  That  the  average  size  is  quite  small 
may  be  appreciated  from  the  fact  that  a  kernel  of  wheat  weighing 
less  than  0.04  gram  is  estimated  to  contain  from  10,000,000 
to  20,000,000  starch  granules. 

The  wheat  proteins  have  been  extensively  investigated, 
especially  by  Osborne.^  Gliadin  and  glutenin  together  form 
wheat  gluten  and  constitute  about  nine  tenths  of  the  protein 
matter  of  the  grain.     In  the  whole  kernel  these  two  proteins 


•  Osborne,  The  Proteins  of  the  Wheat  Kernel, 
stitution  of  Washington. 


Publication  No.  84,  Carnegie  In- 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


273 


are  present  in  about  equal  proportions,  but  in  wheat  flour  there 
is  more  gliadin  than  glutenin.  Gliadin  is  the  best  known  of  the 
alcohol-soluble  proteins,  and  glutenin  of  the  glutelins.  In 
a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  gliadin  gives  t^iacity  and 
elasticity  to  the  gluten,  while  glutenin  gtv^lt  sfrengthTanS  thalr*'  '^ 
the  two  proteins  must  be  present  in  proper  proportions  if  the 

gluten  is  to  have  the  properties  desired  in  bread  making. 

I 

In  addition  to  the  two  principal  proteins,  Osborne  finds  in  wheat:  an 
albumin,  leucosin ;   a  globulin,  edestin  ;   and  a  proteose. 

The  ultimate  composition  of  the  ash-free  proteins  is  given  by  Osborne  * 
as  follows : 

Table  33.     Ultimate  Composition  of  Wheat  Proteins  (Osborne) 


Approximate 
Amount  in 

Carbon 

Hydro- 

Nitro- 

Sulphur 

Oxygen 

Wheat  Kernel 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Gliadin 

4-5 

52-72 

6.86 

17.66 

1.03 

21-73 

Glutenin    . 

4.0 

52.34 

6.83 

17.49 

1.08 

22.26 

Globulin     . 

0.6 

5103 

6.85 

18.39 

0.69 

23.04 

Leucosin    . 

0.4 

53-02 

6.84 

16.80 

1.28 

22.06 

Proteose — a. 

0.2 

49.94 

6.80 

17.08 

1.24 

24.94 

Proteose — b. 

0.2 
(1    Ql'^ 

48.99 

6.85 

16.89 

1. 10 

26.17 

The  proteose  (which  like  the  albumin  and  the  globulin  is  chiefly  found  in 
the  germ)  appeared  to  be  a  mixture  of  two  substances,  a  and  b,  the  first  of 
which  was  precipitated  when  its  solution  was  saturated  with  sodium  chloride 
while  the  second  was  not. 

It  will  be  seen  that  all  of  the  wheat  proteins  contain  more  than  16  per  cent 
of  nitrogen,  so  that  if  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  wheat  products  is  multi- 
plied by  6. 25,  a  result  higher  than  the  actual  amount  of  protein  is  obtained. 
As  a  whole  the  wheat  proteins  contain  about  17.55  P^r  cent  of  nitrogen  so 
that  the  factor  for  converting  nitrogen  to  proteins  should  be  about  5.7  if  the 
true  weight  of  proteins  and  of  carbohydrates  by  difference  is  sought,  and  this 
factor  as  well  as  the  factor  6.25  is  frequently  used.     For  most  of  the  purposes 

•  Osborne  has  also  investigated  the  amino  acids  obtained  by  hydrolysis  of 
gliadin.  glutenin,  and  leucosin  with  the  results  shown  in  comparison  with  othei 
grain  proteins  beyond. 


274  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

of  food  chemistry  and  nutrition,  however,  the  term  "  protein  "  as  used  in 
proximate  analyses  and  dietary  calculations  is  understood  to  mean  the  prod- 
uct obtained  by  multiplying  the  weight  or  percentage  of  nitrogen  by  the 
factor  6.25,  which  should  therefore  be  uniformly  used  m  such  cases. 

Flour  and  Bread 

The  maJdng  of  flour  has  gradually  developed  from  crushing 
the  grain  by  hand  between  two  stones  to  the  highly  elaborate 
mechanical  processes  now  in  use  in  the  large  milling  centers 
where  a  single  mill  often  requires  acres  of  floor  space  and  an 
enormous  investment  in  machinery. 

For  a  long  period  wheat  was  ground  between  millstones  and 
the  product  sifted.  The  coarser  material  was  sold  as  bran,  the 
white  material  which  passed  the  finer  bolting  cloth  was  "  flour," 
and  the  material  of  intermediate  size  and  color  containing  many 
small  particles  of  bran  was  called  "  middlings." 

That  process  has  now  been  almost  entirely  replaced  by  the 
roller  process,  in  which  the  wheat  instead  of  being  ground  between 
stones  is  crushed  between  steel  rolls.  This  process  gives  a  some- 
what more  complete  separation  of  the  starchy  endosperm  from 
the  bran  and  so  yields  a  somewhat  larger  proportion  of  white 
flour  than  did  the  older  process.  In  the  roller  process  as  now 
common  I  v  carried  out,  about  75  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  cleaned 
wheat  is  obtained  as  white  flour  and  the  remainder  is  sold  chiefly 
for  stockfeeding  under  such  names  as  "  wheat  offals,"  "  bran," 
and  "  shorts."  Under  this  process  the  term  "  middlings " 
is  applied  to  the  material  yielded  by  that  part  of  the  endosperm 
which  is  relatively  rich  in  protein  and  therefore  not  so  quickly 
nor  so  finely  pulverized  as  the  more  starchy  portion  but  which 
is  only  yellowish,  not  brown  in  color,  and  quite  distinct  from 
the  bran.  Thus  "  middlings,"  as  the  term  is  now  used,  is  con- 
sidered by  the  miller  a  desirable  constituent  of  flour,  since  it 
does  not  materially  affect  the  color  and,  on  account  cf  its  high 
gluten  (jontent,  it  enhances  the  bread-making  quality. 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  275 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  take  space  here  for  more  than  a  brief 
outline  of  the  roller  process,  especially  since  detailed  and  il- 
lustrated descriptions  are  so  readily  obtainable  from  some  of 
the  large  millers. 

Wheat  which  has  been  screened  and  cleaned  is  first  passed 
between  a  pair  of  corrugated  rollers,  known  as  the  "  first  break," 
where  the  kernel  is  flattened  and  somewhat  crushed  and  a 
small  amount  of  flour  known  as  the  "  break  "  or  "  first  break  " 
flour  is  separated  by  means  of  sieves  while  the  main  portion  is 
conveyed  to  the  "  second  break  "  where  the  kernels  are  more 
completely  flattened  and  granular  flour  particles  are  partially 
separated  from  the  bran.  The  material  passes  over  several 
pairs  of  rolls  or  breaks,  each  succeeding  pair  being  set  a  little 
nearer  together.  This  is  called  the  "  gradual  reduction  process," 
and  effects  a  more  complete  separation  of  the  flour  and  bran 
than  was  possible  in  the  older  processes  in  which  the  wheat  was 
ground  fine  in  one  operation.  The  effect  of  passing  through 
these  rollers  is  to  pulverize  the  inner  floury  part  of  the  wheat 
grain,  to  flatten  the  bran  (and  germ),  and  to  break  up  the  inter- 
mediate portion  into  what  is  called  "  middlings."  The  flour  is 
obtained  by  sifting,  the  bran  and  dust  are  separated  from  the 
middlings  by  means  of  coarser  sieves,  aspirators,  and  other 
devices,  and  the  purified  middlings  are  then  passed  between 
smooth  rolls,  where  they  are  reduced  to  the  desired  degree  of 
fineness,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  expressed,  where  the  granulation 
is  completed. 

The  best  grades  of  patent  flour  are  not  made  entirely  smooth 
and  homogeneous,  but  are  rather  made  to  have  a  characteristic 
feel,  which  is  due  to  the  granulated  middlings  which  these  flours 
contain.  A  flour  which  has  no  granular  feeling  is  not  usually 
considered  of  the  highest  grade,  but  is  generally  rated  as  a  soft 
wheat  flour  of  poorer  gluten.  On  the  other  hand,  the  flour 
should  not  be  too  coarsely  granulated,  and  the  miller  in  order 
to  obtain  the  desired  product  must  be  careful  in  blending  the 


276  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

powdered  flour  obtained  from  earlier  breaks  with  the  granular 
flour  obtained  from  the  middlings. 

The  flour  from  the  middlings  finally  passes  through  silk  bolt- 
ing cloths  of  100  mesh  or  finer,  the  dust  and  particles  of  debris 
having  been  removed  at  various  points  in  the  milling  process. 

In  some  large  mills  in  order  to  secure  a  better  granulation 
and  more  complete  removal  of  the  offals  the  grain  passes  through 
so  many  rollers  and  sieves  that  40  or  more  different  streams  of 
flour  are  obtained  from  the  same  lot  of  wheat.  Many  of  these 
streams  are  then  usually  brought  together  to  produce  the  finished 
flour  of  the  ordinary  commercial  grades.  The  break  flours  are 
those  obtained  from  the  earlier  crushings  of  the  wheat  and  con- 
sist mainly  of  the  innermost  powdery  portion  of  the  grain,  while 
the  patent  flours  contain  more  of  the  harder  portion  known  as  the 
middlings,  but  no  absolute  definition  of  the  term  "  patent  flour  " 
can  be  given  because  of  differences  in  usage  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  Generally  the  first  and  second  patent  flours 
are  spoken  of  as  "  high  grade,"  which  term  may  also  include  what 
is  called  "  standard  patent  flour  "  or  "  straight  grade  flour  " ; 
or  the  "  straight  grade  "  may  be  divided  between  the  high  grade 
and  low  grade  classes.  To  the  low  grade  flour  belong  what  are 
called  the  "  second  clear  "  and  the  "  red  dog."  About  72  per 
cent  of  the  clean  wheat  is  recovered  in  the  higher  grades  of  flour 
and  about  2  or  3  per  cent  as  merchantable  white  flour  of  lower 
grade.  The  higher  grades  are  characterized  by  a  lighter  color, 
more  elastic  gluten,  better  granulation,  and  a  smaller  number 
of  debris  particles.  The  low  grade  flours  contain  a  somewhat 
higher  percentage  of  protein  but  are  not  as  valuable  for  bread- 
making  purposes  because  the  gluten  is  less  elastic. 

Technical  terms  of  the  flour  trade  are  sometimes  confusing. 
Thus  "  95  per  cent  patent,"  means  that  95  per  cent  of  the  total 
flour  (not  of  total  grain)  is  included  in  the  patent,  while  an  "  85 
per  cent  patent  "  is  a  higher  grade  of  flour  which  constitutes 
only  85  per  cent  of  the  total  flour  obtained  in  the  given  process. 


GRAIN    PRODUCTS 


277 


The  composition  of  the  mill  products  of  wheat  may  vary  both 
with  the  wheat  and  with  the  details  of  the  process.  The  follow- 
ing analyses  (Table  34)  are  for  products  all  milled  by  the  modern 
roller  process  from  the  same  lot  of  Minnesota  hard  spring  wheat 
and  are  therefore  strictly  comparable  with  each  other.  The 
differences  of  composition  are  therefore  properly  attributable 
to  the  separations  effected  by  the  milling  process  alone. 

Tabie   34.    Analysis   of  Wheat  and  the   Products  of  Roller 
Milling  (Utiited  States  Department  of  Agriculture) 


Milling  Product 


First  patent  flour 

Second  patent  flour      .... 
First  clear  grade  flour 
Straight  or  standard  patent  flour 
Second  clear  grade  flour   . 

"  Red  dog  "  flour 

Shorts 

Bran 

Entire  wheat  flour 

Graham  flour 

Wheat  ground  in  laboratory 
Germ 


Water 


Per  cent 

IO-55 
10.49 
10.13 
10.54 
10.08 
9.17 

8.73 
9.99 
10.81 
8.61 
8.50 
8.73 


Protein 

(NXS.7) 


Per  cent 
11.08 
II. 14 

13-74 
11.99 

15-03 
18.98 
14.87 
14.02 
12.26 
12.65 
12.65 
27.24 


Fat 


Per  cent 

I-I5 
1.20 
2.20 
I.61 

3-77 
7.00 

6.37 
4-39 
2.24 
2.44 
2.36 
11.23 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 


Per 
76, 
76. 
73. 
75' 
69, 
61, 

65 
65 
73 
74 
74 
48 


cent 

85 
75 
13 
36 
37 
37 
■47 
■54 
67 
.58 
,69 
.09 


Ash 


Per  cent 

0.37 

.42 

.80 

-50  ■ 
1-75 
3-48 
4-56 
6.06 
1.02 
1.72 
1.80 
4.71 


These  analyses  show  a  gradual  increase  in  the  protein  content  ^ 
from  first  patent  to  red  dog  flour,  but  the  "  red  dog  "  flour, 
while  containing  the  most  protein,  is  the  poorest  grade  of  flour 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  baker,  and  in  the  milling  of  wheat  it 
often  is  allowed  to  remain  with  offals  and  sold  for  cattle  food. 
It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  percentage  of  ash  is  lowest  in  those 
flours  which  are  commercially  rated  as  of  highest  grade  and  in- 

1  Note  that  in  the  above  table  the  percentage  of  protein  is  that  of  nitrogen  multi- 
plied by  5.7  for  the  reason  explained  above  (page  273).  Increasing  the  protein 
figures  in  the  above  table  by  one  tenth  gives  essentially  the  results  which  would  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  more  common  factor  6.25. 


278 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


creases  as  we  go  down  the  list  to  the  lower  commercial  grades 
of  flour.  Patent  flour  rarely  contains  more  than  .55  per  cent  ash 
and  usually  contains  less  than  .5  per  cent. 

Snyder  points  out,  however,  that  noticeable  variations  occur 
in  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  or  ash  in  different  wheats. 
It  may  also  be  pointed  out  that  the  ash  constituents  of  wheat 
are  many  of  them  of  distinct  nutritive  value,  so  that  it  is  only 
from  a  commercial  and  not  from  a  nutritive  standpoint  that  we 
would  classify  a  flour  as  low  grade  because  it  has  a  relatively 
high  ash  content. 

Another  study  of  the  mill  products  of  wheat  made  by  Teller 
at  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station,  1894  to  1898,^  included 
a  milling  experiment  in  which  the  principal  products  of  a  long 
process  (7  break)  roller  mill  were  analyzed  with  the  following 
results : 

Table  35.     Percentage   CoMPOsmoN  of  Mill  Products  of  Wheat 

(Teller) 


Patent 
Flour 

Straight 
Flour 

Low 
Grade 
Flour 

Ship 
Stuff 

Bran 

Whole 
Wheat 

Pure 
Ge&u 

Water       .     .     . 

13-75 

13.90 

13.22 

12.25 

12.85 

13.90 

6.80 

Ash      .... 

•33 

•47 

.90 

3.12 

S-8o 

2.15 

4-65 

Crude  fiber    .     . 

•17 

.26 

-74 

3-55 

6.14 

2.17 

1.60 

Fat      .... 

i.os 

1.25 

1.70 

4.80 

5.20 

2-15 

14.38 

Protein  (NX  5.7)'' 

9.69 

10.37 

12.88 

16.36 

15-56 

12.31 

36.00 

Carbohydrates   . 

7501 

73-75 

70.56 

59.02 

54-45 

63-32 

36.5s 

Total  Nitrogen  . 

1.70 

1.82 

2.26 

2.87 

2-73 

2.16 

6-34 

In  this  investigation  Teller  also  determined  the  amount  of 
each  of  four  different  forms  of  nitrogen  compounds  in  each  of 
the  main  miU  products,  with  the  results  shown  in  Table  36. 

*  Bulletins  42  and  53,  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  (Fayetteville,  Ark.). 

»  For  explanation  of  this  factor  for  estimating  protein  from  nitrogen  see  page  273 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


279 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  higher  commercial  grades  of  flour,  that 
is,  those  most  prized  for  bread  making,  show  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  gliadin  whether  this  be  reckoned  in  percentage  of  the 
gluten  or  of  the  total  proteins  present.  The  quality  of  making 
an  elastic  dough  capable  of  large  expansion  in  the  bread-making 
process  depends  upon  both  the  amount  and  the  nature  of  the 
gluten.  In  order  to  make  a  large  light  loaf  of  bread,  the  flour 
should  have  a  fairly  high  gluten  content,  and  its  gluten  should 
contain  a  high  proportion  of  gliadin. 

Table  36.     DisxRiBtrrioN  of  Nitrogen  in  Mill  Products  (Teller) 


Different  Forms  of  Nitrogen  in  Percentage 

of  Total 

Percentage 

of  Gliadin 

IN   THE 

Gluten 

Gliadin 
Nitrogen 

Glutenin 
Nitrogen 

Edestin  and 
Leucosin 
Nitrogen 

Amid 
Nitrogen 

Patent  flour   .     . 

64.2 

27.7 

6.4 

1-7 

69.9 

Straight  flour 

54-0 

37-4 

7.0 

1.6 

59- 1 

Low  grade  flour  .     . 

50-S 

37-7 

95 

2-3 

57-3 

Ship  stuff  .... 

46.2 

36.6 

13.0 

4.2 

SS-8 

Bran 

23-5 

50.0 

17.8 

8.5 

319 

Sifted  dust     .     .     . 

11.8 

61.7 

11.8 

14.7 

16.1 

Analyses  of  flours  with  reference  to  their  bread-making  value 
often  include  determination  of  total  nitrogen  and  of  the 
"  gliadin  number  "  which  shows  what  percentage  of  the  total 
protein  is  in  the  form  of  gliadin. 

Absorption,  expansion,  and  baking  tests  may  also  be  required 
in  an  examination  of  flour  as  to  its  bread-making  qualities. 
Directions  for  making  such  tests  may  be  found  in  Leach's 
Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

The  making  of  bread,  always  prominent  among  household 
pursuits,  is  now  also  a  large  commercial  industry.  Bread  and 
other  bakery  products  made  in  the  United  States  in  bakeries 
large  enough  to  be  classified  as  manufacturing  establishments 


28o  FCX)D  PRODUCTS 

in   1909  amounted  in  value  according  to  Census    reports  to 
$396,865,000. 

In  recent  years  much  careful  study  has  been  devoted  to  the 
making  and  judging  of  bread.  A  description  of  bread-making 
processes  would  lead  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work,  but  the 
qualities  by  which  the  product  is  judged  may  be  concisely  in- 
dicated by  reproducing  here  the  following  recent  and  authori- 
tative score  card  for  bread.  i 

Revised  Score  Card  of  Miss  Bevier  ^ 

General  Appearance 20 

Size        (5) 

Shape      (5) 

Crust      (10) 

Color 

Character 

Depth 

Flavor 35 

Odor 
Taste 

Lightness 15 

Crumb 30 

Character     (20) 
Coarse  —  fine 
Tough  —  tender 
Moist  —  dry 
Elastic  or  not 
Color     (5) 

Grain  —  Distribution  of  gas     (5)  

Total  100 

Leavening  agents.  Compressed  yeast  is  commonly  used  for 
leavening  bread  dough  and  the  production  of  such  yeast  is  now 
an  important  adjunct  of  the  fermentation  industry. 

"  Top  yeast  "  is  preferred.     This  is  separated  from  the  wort 

*  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  10,  No.  25  (March,  1913). 


Texture 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  281 

by  skimming,  washed  with  water,  freed  from  impurities  by 
washing  through  sieves  or  by  settling,  pressed  in  bags  in  hy- 
draulic presses,  cut  into  cakes,  wrapped  in  tin  foil,  and  kept  cold 
until  distributed  for  use. 

Such  yeast  should  be  used  fresh,  and  when  fresh  "  should 
have  a  creamy  white  color,  uniform  throughout,  and  should 
possess  a  fine  even  texture ;  it  should  be  moist  without  being 
slimy.  It  should  quickly  melt  in  the  mouth  without  an  acid 
taste.  Its  odor  is  characteristic  and  should  be  somewhat  sug- 
gestive of  the  apple.  It  should  never  be  '  cheesy,'  such  an 
odor  indicating  incipient  decomposition,  as  does  a  dark  or 
streaked  color  "  (Leach). 

The  addition  of  starch  to  yeast  before  pressing  has  been  com- 
monly practiced  and  justified  on  the  ground  that  the  starch  acts 
as  a  drier,  producing  a  yeast  more  easily  mixed  with  the  flour, 
besides  making  the  yeast  keep  better,  especially  in  warm  weather. 
Compressed  yeast  has  commonly  contained  from  5  to  50  per 
cent  starch,  although  20  per  cent  has  been  suggested  (Jago)  as  a 
limit  above  which  the  starch  should  be  considered  an  adulterant. 

Improved  methods  of  manufacture  yield  a  yeast  comparatively 
free  from  slime,  capable  of  being  pressed  into  cakes  without 
the  use  of  starch,  and  recently  the  Board  of  Food  and  Drug 
Inspection  has  ruled  that  compressed  yeast  should  not  contain 
starch  unless  so  labeled. 

Baking  powders  are  used  when  it  is  desired  to  leaven  the  dough 
more  quickly  than  it  can  be  done  by  fermentation.  Those  in 
common  use  all  depend  upon  the  liberation  of  carbon  dioxide 
by  the  action  of  tartaric  acid  or  acid  tartrate,  acid  phosphate, 
or  alum  upon  sodium  bicarbonate. 

With  tartaric  acid  the  reaction  is  as  follows : 

H2C4H4O6  +  2  NaHCOs  -^  Na2C4H406  -f-  2  CO2  +  2  H2O 
and  with  cream  of  tartar  (acid  potassium  tartrate) ; 

HKC4H4O6  +  NaHCOa  ^  NaKC4H406  +  CO2  +  H2O 


282  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

In  phosphate  powders  the  acid  component  is  calcium  acid 
phosphate  and  the  reaction  is : 

CaH4(P04)2  +  2  NaHCOa 

->  CaHPOi  +  Na2HP04  +  2  CO2  +  H2O 

The  calcium  acid  phosphate  is  made  by  acting  upon  rock 
phosphate  (tricalcium  phosphate)  with  sulphuric  acid.  This 
reaction  produces  also  calcium  sulphate  which  may  or  may  not 
be  left  in  the  acid  phosphate  when  the  latter  is  made  into  baking 
powder. 

Alum  powders  react  in  the  manner  indicated  by  the  following : 

NaAl(S04)2  +  3  NaHCOa  -^  2  Na2S04  +  A1(0H)3  +  3  CO2 

Formerly  potassium  and  ammonium  alums  were  used  inter- 
changeably according  to  price;  now  calcined  sodium  alum  is 
said  to  be  commonly  used. 

Mixed  baking  powders  having  more  than  one  component  which 
reacts  with  the  bicarbonate  are  sometimes  used.  Thus  with  an 
alum  and  phosphate  powder  both  the  prompt  action  of  the  acid 
phosphate  and  the  more  continued  evolution  of  gas  due  to  the 
slow  action  of  the  alum  may  be  obtained. 

A  moderate  amount  of  starch  or  flour  in  baking  powder  is 
considered  permissible  because  of  its  value  in  keeping  the  powder 
dry  and  thus  preventing  its  deterioration. 

Breakfast  Cereals 

The  great  variety  of  forms  in  which  the  grains  are  prepared  as 
breakfast  foods  and  the  extravagant  claims  which  have  some- 
times been  made  by  the  manufacturers  have  directed  so  much 
attention  to  these  products  that  it  is  now  generally  understood 
that  they  resemble  closely  the  staple  grain  products  in  composi- 
tion and  nutritive  value.  Further  discussion  of  these  products 
seems  therefore  hardly  necessary  here. 

For  Retailed  discussion  of  these  products  with  analyses  of 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


283 


the  different  brands,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following 
publications : 

At  water.  Digestibility  of  Cereal  Breakfast  Foods.  Storrs 
(Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  i6th  Annual  Report, 
pages  180-209  (1904). 

Harcourt.  Breakfast  Foods  ;  Their  Chemical  Composition, 
Digestibility  and  Cost.  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  Vol.  26,  pages  240-243,  and  Ontario  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bulletin  162  (1907). 

Woods  and  Snyder.  Cereal  Breakfast  Foods.  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  249. 

,  Composition  of  Grain  and  Bakery  Products 

The  composition  of  most  of  the  grains  and  of  several  of  their 
mill  products  have  been  given  in  the  preceding  sections  of  this 
chapter.  The  table  which  follows  contains  a  compilation  of  analy- 
ses of  raw  and  cooked  grain  products,  taken  chiefly  from  At- 
water  and  Bryant  and  arranged  according  to  their  classification: 

Table  37.    Average  Composition  of  Grain  Products  (American 
Analyses) 


Description 


FLOUR,    MEALS,    ETC. 

Barley  meal  and  flour  . 
Barley,  pearled  .  .  . 
Buckwheat  flour  .  .  . 
Buckwheat  preparations, 
self-raising  .... 
Corn  meal,  granular 
Pop  com 


Per 

cent 


11.9 

II-S 
13.6 

II.6 

12.S 

4-3 


Wo 


Per 
cent 


lO.S 
8.5 
6.4 

8.2 

9.2 
10.7 


w  5^ 

2  -"  « 

s  y  w 

<  2  S 


Per 
cent 


2.2 
I.I 
1.2 

1.2 
1.9 


Per 
cent 

72.8 
77.8 
77-9 

73-4 
75-4 
78.7 


III 


fa 


Per 

cent 

e)<5.5 

0)  .3 

{')  -4 

C)  .4 

0)i.o 

1.4 


Per 
cent 

2.6 

I.I 
•9 

5-6 
i.o 

1-3 


Col. 

1603 
161S 
1577 

1530 
1620 
1826 


284 


FOOD    PRODUCTS 


Table  37.    Average  Composition  of  Grain  Products  (American 
Analyses)  —  Continued 


Description 


FLOUR,  MEALS,  ETC. 

Corn  preparations : 

Cerealine 

Hominy 

Hominy,  cooked     .     .     .     . 

Parched 

Kafir  corn 

\  Oatmeal 

"^Oatmeal,  boiled 

Oatmeal  gruel 

Oatmeal  water 

Rice 

Rice,  boiled 

Rice,  flaked 

Rye  flour 

Rye  meal 

Wheat  flour,  California  fine    . 
Wheat  flour,  entire  wheat 
Wheat  flour,  Graham     .     .     . 
Wheat  flour,   prepared   (self- 
raising)      

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  pro- 
cess, bakers'  grade       .     . 
Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  pro- 
cess, family  and  straight 

grade    

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  pro- 
cess, grade  not  indicated 
Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  pro- 
cess, high  grade  .  .  . 
Average  of  all  analyses  of 
high  and  medium  grades 
and  grade  not  indicated    . 


28 


57 


Per 

cent 


10.3 
II.8 
79-3 

S-2 
16.8 

7-3 
84-5 
91.6 
96.0 
12.3 
72.5 

9-5 
12.9 
11.4 
13-8 
11.4 
"•3 

10.8 
11.9 


12.8 

ii-S 
12.4 

12.0 


Per 
cent 


9.6 

8.3 
2.2 

II-S 

6.6 
16.1 

1.2 

•7 
8.0 
2.8 

7-9 

6.8 

13.6 

7-9 

13-8 

13-3 

10.2 
13-3 


10.8 
11.4 
II. 2 

11.4 


Per 

cent 


1-5 

I.I 
i.o 
i.o 


Per 

cent 


I.I 

78.3 

.6 

79.0 

.2 

17.8 

8.4 

72.3 

3-8 

70.6 

7.2 

67.5 

■5 

"•S 

•4 

6.3 

.1 

2.9 

•3 

79.0 

.1 

24.4 

•4 

81.9 

•9 

78.7 

2.0 

71-5 

1.4 

76.4 

1.9 

71.9 

2.2 

71.4 

73-0 
72.7 

74.8 
75-6 
74-9 

7S-I 


£>!  5  W 
"  H   M 

a  <  e2 
»  2  S 

O!  W  < 
S  W 

Sq2 

fa 


Per 
cent 


I.I 

C)  .9 


(")    .2 
.2 

1.8 


e)  .9 
(3)/.p 

(')  .4 

{')  .7 

C)  -2 

C«)  .2 

(")  .2 

(«)  .3 


Per 

cent 


•7 

•3 

•5 

2.6 

2.2 

1.9 

•7 

•S 

•3 

•4 

.2 

■3 

•7 

i-S 

•5 

1.0 

1.8 

4.8 

.6 


.5    1610 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


285 


Table  37.     Average  Composition  of  Grain  Products  (American 
Analyses)  —  Continued 


Description 


i< 


O  V 


w  § 

O  >J 


P  Q  2 


u  S  g 

egg 

So  2 


FLOUR,  MEALS,  ETC. 

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  pro- 
cess, low  grade  .... 
WTieat  breakfast  foods :  ^ 

Cracked  and  crushed      .     . 

Farina 

Flaked      

Parched  and  toasted       .     . 

Shredded       

Wheat  preparations : 

Macaroni 

Noodles 

Spaghetti 

Vermicelli 

bread,  crackers,  pastry,  etc 

Bread,  com  (johnnycake)    .     . 

Bread,  rye 

Bread,  rye  and  wheat    .     .     . 

Bread,  etc.,  wheat : 

Buns,    cinnamon,    as    pur- 
chased   

Buns,  currant,  as  purchased 
Buns,  hot  cross,  as  purchased 
Buns,  sugar,  as  purchased 
Graham  bread,  as  purchased 
Biscuit,  homemade,  as  pur- 
chased   


13 


Per 
cent 


lO.l 

XO.9 

8.7 

8.6 

8.1 

10.3 
10.7 
10.6 

II.O 


38.9 
35-7 
35-3 


23.6 
27-5 
36.7 
29.6 

35-7 
32.9 


Per 

cent 


14.0 
II. I 

II.O 

13-4 
13.6 
lo.s 

13-4 
II. 7 
12. 1 
10.9 


7-9 

9.0 

11.9 


9.4 
6.7 
7-9 
8.1 
8.9 

8.7 


Per 
cent 


1.9 

1-7 
1.4 
1.4 

2.4 
1.4 

•9 
i.o 

•4 
2.0 


4-7 
.6 

•3 


7.2 
7.6 
4.8 
6.9 


2.6 


Per 
cent 


71.2 

75-5 
76.3 
74-3 
74-5 
77-9 

74.1 
75-6 
76.3 
72.0 


46.3 
53-2 
Si-S 


59-1 
57-6 
49-7 
54-2 
52.1 

55-3 


Per 

cent 


C)  .8 

C)  .4 

1.8 

.8 


e)  .4 


(')  -5 


0)  .3 

(=)  .7 


1  The  different  groups  of  wheat  breakfast  foods  contain  various  brands,  which 
have  been  arranged  as  far  as  possible  according  to  similarity  in  method  of  prepara- 
tion. The  varieties  under  each  group  differ  only  slightly  from  the  average  in  per- 
centage composition. 


286 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  37.    Average  Composition  of  Grain  Products  (American 
Analyses)  —  Continued 


Description 


BREAD,  CRACKERS,  PASTRY,  ETC. 

Biscuit,  Maryland,  as  pur- 
chased        

Rolls,  French,  as  purchased 
Rolls,  plain,  as  purchased  . 
RoUs,  Vienna,  as  purchased 
Rolls,  water,  as  purchased 
Rolls,  all  analyses,  as  pur- 
chased     

Toasted  bread,  as  purchased 
White  bread,  cheap  grade  . 
White  bread,  homemade 
White  bread,  milk,  as  pur- 
chased        

White  bread.  New  England, 
as  purchased       .... 
White  bread,  Quaker,  as  pur- 
chased        

White  bread,  Vienna,  as  pur- 
chased        

White  bread,  all  analyses,  as 
purchased,  average  ^    .     . 


7 

4 

25 

198 


Per 

cent 


24.6 
32.0 
25.2 

31-7 
32.6 

29.2 
24.0 
33-2 
35-0 

36.5 

36.6 

3S.8 

34-2 

35-3 


Per 
cent 


8.4 
8.5 
9-7 
8.5 
9.0 

8.9 

"•5 

10.9 

9.1 

9.6 

9.1 

8.3 
9.4 
9.2 


Per 
cent 


5-6 

2-5 

4.2 
2.2 
3-0 

4.1 
1.6 

1-3 
1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

I.I 

1.2 

1-3 


n  § 

o  >J 


Per 
cent 


60.1 

55-7 
59-9 
56.S 
54-2 

56.7 
61.2 

53-6 

53-3 

5I-I 

52.1 
53-7 
54-1 
53-1 


i  5  " 

O  in 

!  <  5 

t>  z  c 

t-tQ  Z 


Per 
cent 


1-3 
.6 

{')   .3 
■4 


n  -6 


(»)    .2 


(')  -3 
(')  .5 

n  .5 


Per 
cent 


04 


Cat. 

1470 
1267 

1435 
1270 
1268 

1357 
1385 
1224 
1 198 

1160 

1160 

1 1 70 

I2CX5 
II82 


*  Analyses  of  similar  bread  made  from  difEerent  grades  of  flour,  from  high  to  low  grade : 


Fuel 

VALtrE 
"  PER 

Pound 


White  bread  from  high-grade   patent 

flour 

White  bread  from  regular  patent  flour 
White  bread  from  baker's  flour 
White  bre^d  from  low-grade  flour  . 


Water 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates 

Fiber 

Ash 

Per 
cent 

32. g 

34-1 
391 
40.7 

Per 
cent 

8.7 

9.0 

10.6 

12.6 

Per 

cent 

1.4 
1-3 
1.2 
I.I 

Per 
cent 

S6.S 
54-9 
48.3 
44-3 

Per 
cent 

Per 
cent 

o.S 
•7 
•9 

1-3 

Col. 
I23S 

I2I3. 
III7 
1078 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


287 


Table  37.    Average  Composition  of  Grain  Products  (American 
Analyses)  — Continued 


Desckiption 


BREAD,  CRACKERS,  PASTRY,  ETC, 

Whole  wheat  bread,  as  pur- 
chased        

Zwieback,  as  purchased 
Crackers,  Boston  (split)  crack- 
ers, as  purchased    .     .     . 

Butter  crackers      .     .     .     . 

Cream  crackers      .... 

Egg  crackers 

Flatbread      

Graham  crackers  .... 

Oatmeal  crackers  .... 

Oyster  crackers      .... 

Pilot  bread        

Pretzels 

Saltines 

Soda  crackers 

Water  crackers      .... 

All  analyses 

Cake : 

Coffee  cake        

Cup  cake 

Frosted  cake 

Fruit  cake 

Gingerbread 

Sponge  cake 

All  analyses,  except  fruit     . 

Cookies 

Doughnuts       

Fig  biscuits  or  bars   .     .     .     . 

Ginger  snaps 

Lady  fingers 

Macaroons       


Per 

cent 


38.4 
5-8 

7-5 
7.2 
6.8 
S-8 
9.8 
5-4 
6.3 
4.8 
8.7 
9.6 
5-6 
5-9 
6.4 
6.8 

21.3 
15-6 
18.2 

17-3 
18.8 

iS-3 
19.9 
8.1 
18.3 
17.9 

6.3 
15.0 
12.3 


Per 

cent 


9-7 
9.8 

II.O 

9.6 

9-7 
12.6 
14.9 

1 0.0 
11.8 

"•3 

11. 1 

9-7 
10.6 

9.8 
II. 7 
10.7 

7-1 
S-9 
5-9 
5-9 
5-8 
6.3 
6.3 
7.0 
6.7 
4.6 

6.5 
8.8 

6.5 


Per 

cent 


•9 
9.9 

8-5 
10. 1 
12. 1 
14.0 

•S 

9.4 

II. I 

10.S 

S-o 

3-9 

12.7 

9.1 

S-o 


7-S 
9.0 
9.0 

10.9 
9.0 

10.7 
9.0 

9-7 
21.0 
6.6 
8.6 
S-o 

IS-2 


Per 

cent 


49-7 
73-S 

71.1 
71.6 
69.7 
66.6 
73-6 
73-8 
69.0 
70.S 
74-2 
72.8 
68.S 
73-1 
7S-7 
71.9 

63.2 
68.5 
64.8 
64.1 
63-S 
65-9 
63-3 
73-7 
S3-I 
69.8 
76.0 
70.6 
65.2 


3qS 


Per 

cent 


0)1.2 


(^)/ 

(Or 
(0 
{') 
(0 

(0 

(45) 


(0  .9 


C)  .4 

■5 

{')  .7 

17 

{')  .7 

(0    -2 

1. 1 


Per 
cent 


1-3 
i.o 

1.9 
i-S 
1-7 
1.0 
1.2 
1.4 
1.8 
2.9 
1.0 
4.0 
2.6 
2.1 
1.2 
1.8 

-9 
1.0 
2.1 
1.8 
2.9 
1.8 
i-S 
i-S 

-9 
I.I 
2.6 

.6 


288 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Table  37.    Average  Composition  of  Grain  Products  (American 
Analyses)  —  Continued 


Description 


Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

4 

42.5 

31 

3 

32.0 

4.4 

I 

62.4 

4.2 

I 

47-4 

3-6 

3  41-3 

s.» 

I  37.0 

30 

1,64.2 

4.4 

I 

60.7 

s-s 

I 

59-4 

4.0 

3 

64-5 

3-3 

5 

6.6 

8.7 

6 

6.7 

6.6 

04  2, 


2  ■<  H 

»  2  5 


BQ  g 


BREAD,  CRACKERS,  PASTRY,  ETC. 

Pie,  apple 

Pie,  cream  .... 
Pie,  custard      .... 

Pie,  lemon 

Pie,  mince 

Pie,  raisin 

Pie,  squash  .... 
Pudding,  Indian  meal  . 
Pudding,  rice  custard  . 
Pudding,  tapioca  .  . 
Wafers,  miscellaneous  . 
Wafers,  vanilla     .     .     . 


Per 
cent 

9.8 
II.4 

6.3 
lO.I 

12.3 

"•3 
8.4 
4.8 
4.6 

3-2 

8.6 
14.0 


Per 
cent 

42.8 
SI. 2 
26.1 
37-4 
38.1 
47.2 
21.7 
27-5 
31-4 
28.2 

74-5 
71.6 


Per 
cent 


(*) 


Per 

cent 

1.8 
i.o 

I.O 

i-S 

2-S 

I-S 
1-3 
I-S 
.6 
.8 
1.6 
I.I 


Cols. 

1233 

1465 

800 

"57 
1298 

1373 
817 
795 
830 
702 
i860 
1990 


Nutritive  Value  of  Grain  Products  and  their  Economy  as  Food 

The  quantitative  composition  of  the  grains  and  of  the  chief 
food  products  made  from  them  has  already  been  given.  The 
grains  themselves,  their  chief  mill  products,  and  the  dry  cereal 
preparations  made  from  them  show  considerable  similarity 
in  the  general  features  of  their  chemical  composition,  and  they 
vary  but  little  from  an  average  fuel  value  of  about  1650  Calories 
per  pound.  The  loo-Calorie  portion  of  all  these  (dry)  products 
is  very  nearly  one  ounce  (varying  only  from  25  grams  for  oatmeal 
to  29  grams  for  rice).  The  cooked  products  naturally  show 
greater  differences,  chiefly  because  of  the  presence  of  added  water 
or  fat. 

The  chemical  nature  and  nutritive  value  of  the  carbohydrates 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS 


289 


(chiefly  starch  in  all  of  the  grains)  and  of  the  fat  do  not  offer 
any  problem  requiring  further  discussion. 

The  chemical  structure  of  the  proteins  of  the  cereal  grains 
has  been  investigated  with  great  thoroughness  by  Osborne 
from  whose  results  are  taken  the  percentages  of  amino  acids 
obtained  on  hydrolysis  of  these  proteins  as  shown  in  Table  38. 

Table  38.    Amino  Acids  from  Proteins  of  Grain  Products  (Osborne) 


HON- 

Zein 

Glu- 

Pro- 

Glia- 

Glu- 

Leu- 

Edes- 

DEIN 

(Corn) 

TELIN 

LAMIN 

DIN 

tenin 

COSIN 

tin' 

(Barley) 

(Corn; 

(Rye) 

(Wheat) 

(Wheat) 

(Wheat) 

(Hemp) 

Glycin     .     .     . 

0 

0 

0.2s 

0.13 

0 

0.89 

0.94 

3-80 

Alanin      .     .     . 

0.43 

9-79 

? 

1-33 

2.00 

465 

4-45 

3-6o 

Valin        .     .     . 

0.13 

1.88 

? 

3-34 

0.24 

0.18 

6.20 

Leucin     .     .     . 

S-67 

I9S5 

•6.22 

6.30 

6.62 

S-95 

"-34 

14-50 

Prolin      .     .     . 

1373 

9.04 

4.99 

9.82 

13.22 

4-23 

3-18 

1.70 

Phenylalanin 

S03 

6.SS 

1.74 

2.70 

2-3S 

1.97 

3-83 

2.40 

Aspartic  acid    . 

? 

1. 71 

0.63 

0.2s 

0.58 

0.91 

3-35 

4-50 

Glutamic  acid  . 

43.20 

26.17 

12.72 

38.05 

43-66 

23-42 

6-73 

14.50 

Serin  .... 

? 

1.02 

? 

0.06 

0.13 

0.74 

0.33 

i  Tyrosin    .     .     . 

1.67 

3-55 

378 

1. 19 

1.20 

4-25 

3-34 

2.13 

Cystin     .     .     . 

1. 00 

0.4s 

0.02 

1. 00 

.  Lysin       .     .     . 

0 

0 

2-93 
3:00 

0-39 

0.15 
0.61 

1.92 
1.76 

2-75 
2.83 

i.6s 

J    Histidin        .     . 

1.28 

0.^ 

2.19 

,    Arginin   .     .     . 

2.16 

i-SS 

7.06 

2.22 

3.16 

4.72 

S-94 

14-17 

Ammonia 

4.84 

3-64 

2.12 

S-ii 

5-22 

4.01 

1.41 

2.28 

Tryptophan 

Present 

Absent 

Present 

Present 

Present 

Present 

Present 

Present 

Summation  .     . 

78.17 

85-27 

45-44 

67-SS 

82.69 

59-68 

50-32 

76.9s 

*  Edestin  occurs  also  in  wheat. 

That  glycin  is  absent  in  some  cases  is,  as  has  been  seen  in 
earlier  chapters,  a  matter  of  no  consequence  so  far  as  food  value 
is  concerned.  When,  however,  we  find  little  or  no  lysin  as  in 
gliadin,  hordein,  and  zein,  or  find  tryptophan  absent  as  in  zein, 
we  are  confronted  with  a  deficiency  which  we  are  not  sure  that 
the  animal  body  can  supply,  and  serious  doubt  is  thrown  upon 
the  adequacy  of  such  a  protein  as  food. 

Osborne  and  Mendel  have  used  these  proteins  largely  in 
their  feeding  experiments  with  isolated  food  substances  and 
have  found:  (i)  that  when  zein  (lacking  tryptophan)  is  the 


290  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

only  protein  of  the  diet,  it  does  not  suffice  for  the  needs  either 
of  a  growing  or  a  full-grown  animal ;  (2)  that  when  hordein  or 
gliadin  (containing  tryptophan  but  little  or  no  lysin)  is  the 
sole  protein  fed,  full-grown  animals  can  be  maintained,  but  young 
animals  cannot  grow. 

That  these  deficiencies  in  food  value  are  actually  due  to  the 
lack  of  the  amino  acids  named  has  been  shown  by  experiments 
in  which  the  simple  addition  of  the  amino  acid  to  the  dietary 
was  found  to  correct  the  deficiency. 

This  successful  correlation  of  the  chemical  structure  and  nutri- 
tive function  of  the  proteins  is  an  accomplishment  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  scientific  development  of  food  chemistry. 

It  does  not  follow,  however,  from  the  fact  that  gliadin,  hordein, 
or  zein  is  inadequate  as  a  sole  protein  food,  that  wheat,  barley, 
maize,  or  their  mill  products  would  be  correspondingly  inade- 
quate even  if  fed  alone.  Each  of  these  grains  (and  of  the  staple 
mill  products  made  from  them)  contains  a  mixture  of  proteins 
and  the  other  proteins  with  which  gliadin,  hordein,  and  zein  are 
always  mixed  in  wheat,  barley,  and  maize,  do  not  show  these 
same  peculiarities  of  chemical  structure,  so  that  we  have  no 
reason  to  fear  that  either  lysin  or  tryptophan  would  ever  be 
wholly  lacking  in  any  staple  food  product  made  from  grain. 
Thus  glutenin,  which  is  always  present  in  wheat  flour,  has  been 
shown  to  be  adequate  for  both  maintenance  and  growth  even 
when  it  was  the  only  protein  in  the  diet.  It  is,  however,  only 
reasonable  to  expect  that  the  mixture  of  proteins  found  in  corn 
meal  or  even  wheat  flour  will  be  of  somewhat  less  value  in  nutri- 
tion than  an  equal  weight  of  the  mixture  of  proteins  which  we 
find  in  milk,  eggs,  or  meat.  Experimental  observations  confirm 
this  inference  and  indicate  that  when  bread  is  the  sole  source  of 
protein  in  the  diet,  a  larger  amount  of  protein  is  required  for 
equilibrium  than  when  milk  or  meat  is  eaten. 

Fortunately  the  proteins  of  milk  (page  72)  are  relatively  rich 
in  thos?  amino-acid  radicles  in  which  the  grains  are  poor.     Os- 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  291 

borne  and  Mendel  have  found  that  their  animals  are  not  only 
maintained  in  health  and  vigor,  but  also  make  a  normal  rate 
of  growth  when  three  fourths  of  their  protein  is  zein  and  one 
fourth  is  lactalbumin.  If  bread  be  made  with  skimmed  milk 
instead  of  water,  or  if  breakfast  cereal  or  even  corn  meal  mush 
be  eaten  with  cream  or  milk,  it  is  possible  that  the  protein  of 
the  combination  may  have  fully  as  high  a  value  in  nutrition  as 
the  average  protein  of  ordinary  mixed  diet. 

The  digestibility  of  the  grain  proteins  when  fed  free  is  prob- 
ably not  inferior  to  that  of  animal  protein.  It  is  evidently  very 
largely  because  of  the  associated  substances  such  as  cell  walls 
which  still  enclose  the  grain  proteins  to  a  certain  extent  in  ordi- 
nary mill  products,  that  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  the 
protein  of  bread  for  example  is  lower  than  that  of  average  mixed 
diet.  Partly  for  the  same  and  partly  for  other  reasons,  it  was 
anticipated  that  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  whole  grain 
products  might  be  somewhat  lower  than  that  of  the  finer  prod- 
ucts representing  only  the  inner  portion  of  the  kernel. 

This  question  was  of  particular  interest  as  affecting  the  com- 
parative food  values  of  patent,  "  entire  wheat,"  and  Graham 
flours  and  the  breads  made  from  them.  The  average  results 
of  a  long  series  of  digestion  experiments  carried  out  under  the 
auspices  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  were 
as  follows: 


Coefficient  of  Digestibility  of 

Protein 

Carbohydrate 

Standard  patent  flour  ...... 

"  Entire  wheat "  flour 

Graham  flour 

Percent 
88.6 
82.0 
74-9 

Perceta 

97-7 
93-5 
89.2 

The  lower  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  the  "  entire  wheat  " 
and  Graham  flours  almost  exactly  offset  their  higher  protein 


292  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

contents,  so  that  it  may  be  said  that  the  amount  of  protein 
digested  and  absorbed  from  a  pound  of  one  of  these  or  from  a 
pound  of  patent  flour  is  practically  the  same.  The  amount  of 
available  energy  is  also  about  the  same  in  either  case.  However, 
as  Woods  and  Merrill  have  pointed  out,  it  does  not  follow  that 
a  larger  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  may  not  be  obtained 
from  a  given  amount  of  wheat  when  milled  as  Graham  flour  or  as 
entire  wheat  flour  than  when  ground  for  patent  flour,  because 
loo  pounds  of  cleaned  and  screened  wheat  will  yield  loo  pounds 
of  Graham  flour,  or  about  85  pounds  of  "  entire  wheat  "  flour, 
but  only  about  72  pounds  of  patent  flour.  It  follows  that  if 
milled  on  an  equally  large  scale,  i.e.  if  there  were  an  equally 
large  demand,  Graham  and  "  entire  wheat  "  flours  could  be  sold 
at  a  lower  price  than  patent  flour,  but  at  present  they  usually 
cost  as  much,  or  in  some  cases  even  more. 

Regarding  the  coarser  and  finer  flours  simply  as  sources  of 
protein  and  energy,  they  are  so  nearly  equal  both  in  digestible 
nutrients  and  (at  present,  to  the  individual  consumer)  in  pecu- 
niary economy '  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  substantially 
equivalent  and  interchangeable.  They  are,  however,  quite 
different  in  the  ash  constituents  which  they  contain  and  some- 
what different  in  their  effect  upon  the  digestive  tract. 

The  coarser  wheat  products  stimulate  peristalsis  more  than 
do  the  fine  flour  products,  an  effect  which  is  desirable  in  some 
persons  and  undesirable  in  others.  This  property  of  the  whole 
wheat  products  is  often  attributed  to  mechanical  irritation,  but 
cannot  be  due  entirely  to  this,  because  "  bran  mash  "  is  used  as 
a  laxative  with  horses  whose  other  food  (hay,  for  example) 
would  certainly  furnish  more  mechanical  stimulation  than  the 
bran.  The  wheat  kernel  contains  two  distinct  substances  re- 
ported as  having  laxative  effects  which  are  largely  rejected  in 
the  preparation  of  fine  flour.     These  are  the  oil  of  the  germ  and 

>  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  certain  proprietary  "whole  wheat"  products 
sold  at  very^gh  prices. 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  293 

the  phy  tin  (one  of  the  phosphorus  compounds)  which  is  especially 
abundant  in  the  bran.  It  is  probable  that  in  man  the  stimu- 
lation of  peristalsis  by  whole  wheat  products  is  due  in  part  to 
direct  mild  laxative  action  by  one  or  both  of  these  constituents, 
and  in  part  also  to  the  mechanical  effect  of  the  fibrous  particles. 

The  ash  constituents  of  the  grains  are  largely  concentrated  in 
the  germs  and  outer  layers.  This  has  been  pointed  out  with 
respect  to  barley,  maize,  and  rice  earlier  in  the  chapter.  We 
shall  therefore  consider  wheat  chiefly  at  this  point.  Bran  yields 
10  to  20  times  as  much  ash  as  patent  flour.  Comparing  the 
patent  flour  with  the  whole  wheat,  the  discrepancy  is  still  large, 
the  wheat  containing  3  to  5  times  as  much  of  iron,  of  phosphorus, 
of  calcium,  or  of  total  ash  as  the  fine  flour  made  from  it.  Thus 
three  fourths  of  the  ash  constituents  of  the  wheat  kernel  are 
lost  to  man  in  the  process  of  manufacturing  the  wheat  into 
white  flour.  Doubtless  the  loss  in  digestion  is  somewhat  greater 
for  the  coarser  than  for  the  finer  products  in  the  case  of  the  ash 
constituents  as  of  the  proteins,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  loss  in  digestion  would  in  any  case  approach  the  loss 
involved  in  the  ordinary  miUing  process.  The  body  probably 
absorbs  from  a  pound  of  genuine  whole  wheat  bread  at  least 
twice  as  much  phosphorus,  iron,  and  calcium  compounds  as 
from  a  pound  of  white  bread.  No  adequate  experiments  upon 
this  point  appear  to  have  been  made  with  man,^  but  Bunge'^ 
has  tested  the  value  of  the  ash  constituents  of  the  bran  for 
growing  rats. 

Eight  young  rats  of  the  same  litter  and  approximately  the 
same  size  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  were  divided  into 
two  groups  of  four  each.  One  group  was  fed  on  white  bread  which 
contained  0.0015  per  cent  Fe,  0.045  P^^  cent  CaO,  and  0.28 

'  The  ordinary  digestion  experiments  taken  alone  are  useless  if  not  positively 
misleading  for  this  purpose  because  of  the  excretion  in  the  feces  of  ash  constituents 
which  have  been  absorbed  and  utilized  in  the  body. 

^  Zeitsckrift  fiir  physiologische  Chemie,Vo\.  25,  page  36  (1898). 


294  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

per  cent  P2O6;  the  other  group  on  whole  wheat  bread  which 
contained  0.0055  P^r  cent  Fe,  0.077  P^r  cent  CaO,  and  0.90 
per  cent  P2O5.  The  rats  receiving  the  whole  wheat  bread 
grew  much  better  than  those  fed  on  white  bread,  and  were 
found  to  contain  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  both  a  larger 
amount  and  a  higher  percentage  of  haemoglobin.  It  was  clear 
that  the  ash  constituents  of  the  outer  layers  of  the  grain  were 
utilized  for  the  production  of  bone,  muscle,  and  blood,  and  that 
the  rats  receiving  the  whole  wheat  bread  were  much  better 
nourished  than  those  which  were  fed  on  white  bread,  though  all 
had  appeared  equally  well  nourished  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment. 

In  view  of  recent  studies  on  rice  and  beriberi  (page  267  and 
references  at  the  end  of  this  chapter)  the  probable  effect  upon 
the  "  vitamine  "  content  of  rejecting  all  but  the  white  interior 
portion  of  the  grain  naturally  suggests  itself  as  a  subject  possibly 
worthy  of  consideration. 

Some  writers  and  teachers  treat  the  losses  incurred  in  the 
ordinary  milling  processes  as  a  matter  of  indifference  or  even 
object  to  any  serious  discussion  of  the  problem,  calling  it  a 
"  fad  "  on  the  ground  that  with  the  mixed  dietary  prevalent 
in  the  United  States  there  is  no  danger  of  the  "  deficiency 
diseases  "  from  any  mode  of  milling  the  grains.  This  is  probably 
true  as  regards  the  pronounced  diseases  such  as  beriberi,  but 
it  is  also  true  that  many  American  family  dietaries  show  little 
margin  of  safety  as  regards  iron,  phosphorus,  and  calcium,^ 
which  makes  it  only  reasonable  that  we  should  wish  to  include 
in  the  products  used  for  human  food  as  much  as  is  practicable 
of  those  parts  of  the  grain  which  are  rich  in  these  elements. 
Moreover,  one  should  not  overlook  the  great  wastefulness  of 
making  from  100  pounds  of  wheat  only  70  to  75  pounds  of  white 
flour  when  the  same  wheat  will  yield  85  to  95  pounds  of  flour 

'  Bulletins  185  and  227,  Oflfice  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agricultufo. 


GRAIN   PRODUCTS  295 

practically  equal  pound  for  pound  if  the  ash  constituents 
be  ignored,  and  more  than  equal  if  these  constituents  be 
considered. 

Pecuniary  economy.  The  grain  products,  including  flour, 
bread,  corn  meal,  and  oatmeal,  constitute  the  most  economical 
of  the  general  groups  of  foods. 

A  pound  of  bread  or  12  ounces  of  flour,  corn  meal,  or  oatmeal 
is  equal  in  fuel  value  to  5  or  6  ounces  of  butter  or  fat  bacon,  i  to 
2  pounds  steak,  2  to  3  pounds  halibut  or  other  lean  fish. 

In  an  extended  series  of  dietary  studies  made  at  the  State 
University  of  Maine,  the  grain  products  while  costing  only 
17  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure  for  food  furnished  40  per 
cent  of  the  fuel  value,  25  per  cent  of  the  protein,  and  18  per  cent 
of  the  phosphorus  compounds. 

As  a  rule  a  free  use  of  bread  and  other  grain  products  makes 
for  both  an  economical  and  a  well-balanced  dietary. 

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GRAIN  PRODUCTS  299 

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3CX)  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

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Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  8,  pages  327-340  (1910). 
Wardall.     Relation  of  Yeast  to  Flavor  in   Bread.     Journal  of  Home 

Economics,  Vol.  2,  pages  75-91  (1910). 
WiLLARD.     Changes  in  Weight  of  Stored  Flour.     Kansas  State  Board  of 

Health,  Vol.  7,  pages  9-14  (1910-1911). 
Hill.    Nutritive  Value  of  White  and  Standard  Bread.     British  Medical 

Journal,  191 1,  No.  2627,  pages  1068-1069;   (discussion)  No.  2628,  page 

1151  (1911)- 
Humphreys.     Wheat  Flour.     Chemical  News,  Vol.  104,  page  117  (1911). 
Ladd  and  Bailey.     Wheat  Investigations ;   Milling,  Baking  and  Chemical 

Tests.    North  Dakota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  89 

(1911). 
Mendel  and  Fine.     The  Utilization  of  the  Proteins  of  Wheat.     Journal  of 

Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  10,  pages  303-325  (1911). 
Shaw  and  Gaumnitz.     California  White  Wheats.     California  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  212  (1911). 
Thatcher,  Olson,  and  Hadlock.    Wheat  and  Flour  Investigations.    Wash- 
ington Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  100  (1911). 


GRAIN  PRODUCTS  301 

Osborne  and  Mendel.  The  R61e  of  Gliadin  in  Nutrition.  Journal  of 
Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  12,  pages  473-510  (1912). 

Teller.  The  Carbohydrates  of  Wheat  and  Wheat  Products  and  Changes 
in  the  Same  during  Development  of  the  Grain.  Original  Communica- 
tions, 8th  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  13,  pages 
273-278(1912). 

Wesener  and  Teller.  Aging  of  Flour  and  its  Effect  on  Digestion.  Journal 
of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  912-919  (191 1). 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Bleached  Flour.  Notice  of 
Judgment  722.     Office  of  the  Secretary. 

Dean  and  Swanson.     Effect  of  Common  Mill  Fumigants  (Hydrocyanic 
Acid  and  Carbon  Bisulphide)  on  the  Baking  Qualities  of  Wheat  Flour. 
Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  178,  pages  155-207. 
(1911-1912). 

Willard  and  Swanson.  Milling  Tests  of  Wheat  and  Baking  Tests  of  Flour. 
Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  177  (1911-1912). 

KoHMAN.  Salt-rising  Bread  and  Some  Comparisons  with  Bread  Made  with 
Yeast.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4, 
pages  20-30,  100-106  (1912). 

Newan  et  al.  Some  Experiments  on  the  Relative  Digestibility  of  White 
and  Wholemeal  Breads.  Journal  of  Hygiene,  Vol.  12,  pages  119-143 
(1912). 

Snyder.  Wheat  Flour.  Original  Communications,  8th  International 
Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  18,  pages  323-328  (191 2). 

Stewart  and  Hirst.  Comparative  Value  of  Irrigated  and  Dry  Farming 
Wheat  for  Flour  Production.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering 
Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages  270-272  (191 2). 

Swanson.  Acidity  in  Flour ;  its  Relation  to  Phosphorus  and  Other  Con- 
stituents. Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4, 
pages  274-275  (191 2). 

Willard  and  Swanson.  Baking  Qualities  of  Flour  as  influenced  by  Certain 
Chemical  Substances,  etc.  Transactions  of  the  Kansas  Academy  of 
Science,  Vol.  23-24,  pages  201-207 ;  Chemical  News,  Vol.  105,  pages  97- 
99(1912). 

Bailey.  Minnesota  Wheat  Investigations.  I.  Milling,  Baking  and  Chemi- 
cal Tests.     Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  131 

(1913) 

Power  and  Solway.  Chemical  Examination  of  Wheat  Germ.  Pharma- 
ceutical Journal,  Vol.  91,  pages  11 7-1 20,  176  (1913). 

Street.  Diabetic  Foods.  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Report,  Section  i.  Part  i,  pages  1-95  (191 3). 


302  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

SwANSON.  Chemical  Composition  of  Wheats  compared  with  Resultant 
Flours.     American  Miller,  Vol.  41,  pages  218-222  (1913). 

White.  Influence  of  Bran  Extracts  on  the  Baking  Qualities  of  Flour. 
Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages  990-993 

(1913)- 
LeClerc   and  Jacobs.     Graham  Flour.     United   States  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  164  (1913). 
LeClerc  and  Yoder.     Environmental  Influences  on  the  Physical  and 

Chemical  Characteristics  of  Wheat.     Journal  of  Agricultural  Research, 

Vol.  I,  pages  275-291  (1914)- 
McCormack.     Milling  of  Wheat  and  the  Testing  of  Flour.    Journal  of 

Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  6,  pages  423-428  (1914). 
WiLLARD  and  SwANSON.     Influence  of  Certain  Substances  upon  the  Baking 

Qualities  of  Flour.     Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 

190,  pages  237-285  (1914)- 


CHAPTER  IX 

VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 

Since  it  is  difficult  to  draw  any  logical  line  of  demarcation 
between  vegetables,  fruits,  and  nuts,  because  of  the  many  im- 
portant characteristics  common  to  articles  belonging  to  more 
than  one  of  these  categories,  they  will  here  be  discussed  in  one 
chapter.  The  descriptive  matter  relating  to  these  food  mate- 
rials will  be  taken  up  first;  and  the  more  critical  discussion 
of  the  group  as  a  whole,  its  nutritive  importance  and  place  in 
the  diet,  will  follow. 

Vegetables 

According  to  Langworthy,  vegetables  furnish  8.7  per  cent  of 
the  protein,  i.o  per  cent  of  the  fat,  and  12.0  per  cent  of  the  carbo- 
hydrate of  the  average  American  dietary.  The  Census  Reports 
show  $450,000,000  worth  of  vegetables  grown  in  the  United 
States  in  1909.  The  actual  value  was  probably  greater,  since 
this  figure  is  based  on  returns  which  were  probably  not  entirely 
complete,  and  on  the  values  at  the  farm  rather  than  in  the  market. 
Vegetables  are  therefore  an  important  factor  in  the  food  supply 
and  are  likely  to  play  an  increasingly  prominent  part  as  their 
importance  as  food  becomes  better  understood,  and  as  agri- 
culture becomes  more  intensified. 

Of  the  food  materials  commonly  known  as  vegetables,  some 
are  seeds,  some  fruits,  some  leaves,  stems,  or  bulbs,  and  some 
are  roots  and  tubers. 

The  plants  whose  seeds  are  commonly  used  as  foods  and  classed 
as  vegetables  belong  chiefly  to  the  Leguminosae,  or  pulse  family. 

303 


304  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Such  seeds  include  the  various  kinds  of  beans,  peas,  and  lentils 
and  are  known  collectively  as  legumes  or  pulses.  Seeds  of  the 
Graminaceae,  or  grass  family,  which  includes  the  common 
cereals,  and  which  have  been  studied  under  the  general  name  of 
"  grains  "  in  the  preceding  chapter,  are  sometimes  grouped  with 
the  vegetables.  Thus  sweet  corn  is  commonly  classed  as  a 
vegetable,  and  rice,  though  handled  as  a  grain  crop  commercially, 
is  sometimes  given  the  place  of  a  vegetable  on  the  table. 

The  cases  in  which  a  fleshy  fruit  enveloping  the  seeds  is  eaten 
as  a  "  vegetable  "  rather  than  as  "  fruit  "  fall  chiefly  in  the 
Cucurbitaceae,  or  gourd  family,  which  includes  cucumbers, 
pumpkins,  and  squashes,  the  only  exception  of  much  importance 
being  the  tomato,  which  belongs  to  the  Solanaceae. 

The  plants  of  which  the  leaves,  stems,  bulbs,  roots,  or  tubers  are 
eaten  are  widely  distributed  through  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Thus  beets,  chard,  and  spinach  belong  to  the  Chenopodiaceae ; 
cabbage,  to  the  Cruciferae;  onions  and  leeks,  to  the  Liliaceae; 
the  potato,  to  the  Solanaceae ;  carrots,  parsnips,  and  parsley,  to 
the  Umbelliferae. 

Since  among  the  materials  commonly  called  vegetables  there 
is  so  little  relation  between  the  botanical  position  of  the  plant 
and  its  use  as  food,  it  seems  best  to  follow  here  the  common 
grouping  of  the  vegetables  rather  than  their  botanical  classi- 
fication. 

Legumes  or  Pulses 

Beans,  peas,  and  legumes  are  marketed  as  food  both  in  the 
green  condition  (fresh  or  canned)  and  in  the  dry  state,  the  dry 
legumes  being  sometimes  classed  as  "  grains^'  The  Census 
Bureau  reports  the  production  of  dry  edible  beans  in  the  United 
States  in  1909  at  11,251,000  bushels  valued  at  $21,771,000 
and  that  of  dry  peas  at  7,129,000  bushels  valued  at  $  10,964,000, 

Fresh  legumes  do  not  appear  separately  in  the  census  reports. 
Hence  we  have  no  statistical  data  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,  AND  NUTS  305 

green  and  dry  legumes  together  enter  into  the  food  supply  of  the 
country  as  a  whole.  From  the  data  of  about  400  studies  of 
families  and  other  groups  of  people,  Langworthy  estimates 
that  they  supply  7^.$  per  cent  of  the  protein,  0.2  per  cent  of  the 
fat,  and  2.0  per  cent  of  the  carbohydrate  in  the  average  Ameri- 
can dietary. 

On  account  of  the  recent  growth  of  the  pea-canning  industry, 
it  seems  likely  that  the  legumes  may  now  be  playing  a  larger 
part  in  the  food  supply  than  at  the  time  of  the  observations 
upon  which  Langworthy's  estimates  are  based. 

The  present  methods  of  canning  peas  are  described  by  Bitting 
in  Bulletin  125  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  from  which  the  following  paragraphs 
are  taken : 

Pea  canning  is  one  of  the  most  important  lines  of  the  canning  industry, 
being  third  in  order  of  output,  tomatoes  and  corn  being,  respectively,  first 
and  second,  although  peas  are  second  in  point  of  value.  The  pea  pack  for 
1907  is  estimated  at  6,505,961  cases,  valued  at  $14,650,000. 

The  first  labor-saving  device  of  importance  in  pea  canning  was  the  podding 
machine  invented  by  Madame  Faure  in  France  in  1883.  The  invention  was 
practically  duplicated  in  this  country  in  1889.  The  American  podding 
machine  was  improved,  and  in  1893  it  was  patented  as  a  vining  machine. 
The  whole  pea-canning  industry  was  changed  by  this  invention.  Practically 
all  of  the  peas  canned  in  this  country  are  passed  through  these  vining 
machines,  so  that  their  use  has  virtually  changed  the  growing  of  peas  in 
small  patches  —  market-garden  fashion,  with  hundreds  of  persons  going 
over  the  vines  and  picking  the  pods  —  to  the  cultivating  of  large  fields  which 
are  cut  by  a  machine.  The  viner  occupies  the  same  relation  to  hand  picking 
in  the  pea-canning  industry  that  the  thrashing  machine  does  to  the  flail  in 
the  thrashing  of  wheat. 

The  first  operation  through  which  the  peas  pass  after  leaving  the  viner  is 
that  of  washing.  This  is  accomplished  in  what  is  known  as  the  squirrel  cage, 
which  is  a  wire  cylinder  about  3  feet  in  diameter  and  12  feet  long.  The 
cylinder  is  set  on  a  slight  incline  so  that  when  the  peas  are  admitted  at  one 
end  they  will  tend  to  roll  to  the  other  as  the  cylinder  revolves.  On  the  inside 
is  a  perforated  pipe  that  sprays  a  stream  of  water  upon  the  peas,  which  insures 
their  being  well  washed  provided  the  spray  has  some  force.     When  the 

X 


3o6 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  307 

weather  is  very  warm  and  the  peas  accumulate  more  rapidly  than  they  can  be 
passed  through  the  filler,  it  may  be  necessary  to  wash  the  shelled  peas  in  cold 
water  every  few  hours  in  order  to  prevent  fermentation. 

After  the  peas  pass  through  the  washer,  they  should  be  graded  according 
to  the  degree  of  maturity  or  hardness.  This  is  accomplished  by  passing 
them  through  tanks  containing  salt  solutions  of  different  densities.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  young  tender  peas  will  float  in  a  salt  solution  somewhat 
heavier  than  water  and  those  more  mature  will  sink,  while  the  very  mature 
peas  will  sink  in  a  heavy  salt  solution.  Peas,  therefore,  may  be  sorted  very 
readily  into  different  grades  according  to  their  density  by  using  different 
strengths  of  salt  water.  In  practice  three  grades  have  been  made.  The 
first  grade  consists  of  all  peas  which  will  float  in  a  solution  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.040.  The  second  grade  consists  of  those  peas  which  will  sink  in  a 
solution  of  this  density  but  which  will  float  in  a  solution  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.070.  The  third  grade  consists  of  the  peas  which  will  sink  in  the 
latter  solution. 

Grading.  The  grading  of  peas  for  quality  is  as  sharp  and  clear  as  that  for 
size.  The  lightest  weight  peas  are  the  finest,  being  even  in  quality,  succulent, 
and  tender.  The  heaviest  peas  are  the  poorest,  being  uneven  in  quality, 
hard,  overripe,  and  of  bad  color.  The  middle-weight  peas  are  good,  but 
harder  than  the  first  grade,  of  darker  color,  and  not  so  uniform.  These 
differences  are  most  apparent  before  the  canning  is  done,  though  they  are 
readily  distinguishable  in  the  can,  and  also  show  on  chemical  examination. 

A  chemical  examination  of  peas  graded  for  quality  as  well  as  for  size  gave 
results  as  shown  in  the  table  on  page  308. 

The  table  shows  more  total  solids  and  higher  protein  and  starch  content 
in  the  third-grade  goods.  This  might  be  expected,  as  the  third  grade  repre- 
sents the  more  mature  product.  If  canned  peas  were  purchased  for  their 
nutritive  properties  only,  then  the  third  grade  would  be  the  preferable  one  to 
buy,  but  they  are  usually  selected  for  their  delicacy  and  flavor,  which  are 
found  in  the  highest  degree  in  the  youngest  and  tenderest  peas,  or  the  first 
grade. 

The  grading  for  size  is  a  very  simple  matter.  The  peas  are  passed  over 
sieves,  or  into  a  revolving  cylinder  having  four  sections  with  perforations  of 
different  sizes.  The  perforations  in  the  first  sieve  or  section  measure  nine 
thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  peas  which  pass  through  this 
size  opening  are  known  as  No.  i ,  or  "  petits  pois."  The  next  size  of  perfora- 
tion is  ten  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  peas  passing  through 
are  known  as  No.  2,  "  extra  sifted,"  or  "  extra  fins."  The  third  size  of  per- 
foration is  eleven  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch,  and  the  peas  which  pass  through 
are  known  as  No.  3,  "  sifted,"  or  "  fins."    The  last  size  is  twelve  thirty- 


3o8 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


seconds  of  an  inch,  and  the  peas  which  pass  through  are  known  as  No.  4, 
or  "  early  June  "  peas.  The  peas  which  are  too  large  to  pass  through  this 
sieve  go  over  the  end  and  are  known  as  No.  5,  or  "  marrowfats."  Some 
packers  add  one  more  sieve  for  late  peas,  with  perforations  thirteen  thirty- 
seconds  of  an  inch  in  diameter  for  the  No.  5,  and  those  which  pass  over  this 
sieve  are  called  No.  6,  or  "  telephone  peas."  The  sizes  of  these  perforations 
are  standard  and  in  general  use.  Some  packers  have  attempted  to  make  sizes 
of  their  own  by  reaming  out  the  holes,  while  others  do  not  use  all  four  sieves, 
but  group  two  sizes  together ;  and  some  peas  are  ungraded. 


Table  39.    Chemical  Examination   of   Peas   Graded  for  Size  and 

Quality 

[Analyses  made  in  the  Division  of  Foods,  Bureau  of  Chemistry.] 


Grade 

20 

i 

^ 

Si5 

P 

0 

as 
M  Q 

i 

< 

1 

1^ 

C/3 

& 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Percent 

Petits  pois 

First     .     . 

14.23 

1.03 

3-44 

1.68 

0.7s 

5-57 

0.72 

o.ex3 

1.04 

Second 

18.80 

1.78 

4.19 

1.84 

.92 

8.53 

•93 

.00 

.61 

Third  .     . 

18.04 

1.82 

4.41 

2.28 

•94 

8.53 

.81 

.00 

•35 

Sifted : 

First    .     . 

22.06 

1.36 

5-31 

2.21 

.96 

10.23 

.98 

.00 

I.OI 

Second 

24.32 

1.04 

569 

2.05 

I.OI 

11.52 

•57 

.00 

2.44 

Third  .     . 

27.74 

1-37 

5-63 

2.18 

1.50 

13-52 

.48 

.00 

3.06 

Marrowfat : 

First     .     . 

22.22 

1.02 

5-13 

2.18 

.98 

10.48 

•94 

.00 

1.49 

Second 

24.10 

1.30 

6.69 

2-55 

I-S5 

8.77 

•63 

.00 

2.60 

Third  .     . 

27-15 

2.03 

5-94 

2.00 

1.27 

12.91 

.36 

.00 

2.63 

After  the  peas  have  been  graded  into  sizes  they  are  usually  run  in  thin 
layers  over  slowly  moving  belts,  so  that  pieces  of  foreign  material,  broken, 
fully  matured,  and  defective  peas  may  be  seen  easily  and  removed.  Low- 
grade  peas  are  not  so  carefully  picked  over. 

Blanching.  There  are  two  objects  in  blanching  peas :  (i)  To  remove  the 
mucous  substance  from  the  outside  and  a  part  of  the  green  coloring  matter, 
so  as  to  have  a  clear  liquor  in  the  can ;  and  (2)  to  drive  water  into  the  peas, 
so  that  all  will  be  tender. 

In  the  young,  juicy  pea,  the  water  content  is  at  its  maximum,  so  that  the 
cleaning  6i  the  surface  is  all  that  is  necessary.     The  time  required  for  blanch- 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,  AND  NUTS  309 

ing  is  from  one-half  to  one  minute  for  No.  i  and  No.  2,  or  "  petits  pois  "  and 
"  extra  sifted  "  ;  one  and  a  half  minutes  for  No.  3,  or  "  sifted  " ;  two  minutes 
for  No.  4,  or  "  early  June  ";  and  two  and  one  half  minutes  for  No.  5,  or 
"  marrowfat  "  peas.  To  get  the  best  results,  peas  which  are  very  old  and 
hard  will  need  a  blanch  approximately  five  times  as  long  as  } oung  peas  of  the 
corresponding  grade,  while  those  in  the  intermediate  stages  will  require  a 
blanch  proportional  to  their  development. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  among  peas  that  are  good,  but  unt^raded  as  to 
quality,  there  will  be  a  greater  or  less  number  which  will  be  hard  because  of 
under  blanching,  and  some  above  size  because  of  swelling  during  the  blanch- 
ing and  after  processing.  There  is  no  part  of  the  work  of  canning  peas  which 
requires  so  much  judgment  as  that  of  blanching  if  the  best  quality  of  goods  is 
to  be  obtained. 

When  the  peas  leave  the  blancher,  they  are  sometimes  washed,  and  this  is 
desirable  in  order  to  insure  a  clear  liquor,  especially  if  the  peas  have  been 
blanched  in  wire  baskets  suspended  in  a  tank  of  water. 

The  peas  are  filled  into  the  cans  by  special  machines,  although  in  very 
small  factories  this  may  be  done  by  hand.  The  modern  machines  do  the 
work  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  insuring  a  uniform  quantity  in  each 
can,  then  adding  liquor  to  fill,  so  that  the  caps  will  Just  go  on. 

A  can  is  said  to  be  well  filled  when  the  contents  are  within  three  eighths 
inch  of  the  cap  and  the  peas  are  just  covered  with  liquor.  Peas  of  excellent 
quality  when  covered  to  too  great  a  depth  with  liquor  deteriorate  in  appear- 
ance as  can  be  determined  by  inserting  a  spoon  and  raising  the  peas  gently 
but  without  appreciably  disturbing  the  liquor.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there 
is  not  sufficient  liquor  to  cover  the  peas,  they  are  not  generally  attractive,  and 
if  very  short  of  liquor,  they  become  pasty.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  use 
just  enough  liquor  to  cover  the  peas. 

The  No.  2  can  generally  used  is  popularly  supposed  to  mean  a  2-pound  can, 
and  is  often  so  billed  and  referred  to  in  market  reports,  but  it  does  not  hold 
2  pounds  and  should  be  given  its  proper  designation.  The  average  fill  of  a 
can  is  such  that  after  processing  there  will  be  14  ounces  of  peas  (400  grams) 
and  7j  ounces  (200  grams)  of  liquor.  The  can  weighs  100  grams,  making  a 
total  of  700  grams  or  25  ounces.  Any  very  marked  deviation  from  these 
figures  in  the  direction  of  reducing  the  proportion  of  peas  would  evidently  be 
an  adulteration  with  water,  while  any  considerable  increase  in  the  proportion 
of  peas  would  result  in  dryness.  Cans  containing  only  ii  or  12  ounces  of 
peas  are  evidently  short  weight,  though  a  customer  cannot  reasonably 
demand  more  than  15  ounces  as  a  maximum  and  expect  a  good  appearance. 

A  can  of  marrowfat  or  telephone  peas  will  not  weigh  as  much  by  about 
three  fourths  ounce  (20  grams)  as  a  can  of  the  smaller-sized  peas  if  the  fill  be 


f 


310  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  same.  The  "  sifted  "  pea,  or  No.  3  size,  is  the  heaviest  in  the  commercial 
grading.  The  "  extra  sifted  "  and  the  "  petits  pois  "  are  the  most  expensive 
to  the  canner,  and  the  tendency  is  to  cut  slightly  in  the  weight,  usually  about 
three  fourths  of  an  ounce,  although  it  is  not  uncommon  to  get  cans  from  i^  to 
2  ounces  short  on  peas  and  correspondingly  overweight  on  liquor. 

The  liquor  used  on  peas  is  usually  composed  of  water,  salt,  and  sugar. 
At  one  time  saccharin  was  used  by  many  packers  instead  of  sugar,  but  this 
practice  has  been  almost  entirely  discontinued.  The  proportion  of  salt  and 
sugar  used  varies  greatly  with  the  different  packers.  The  lowest  amounts 
given  were  2  pounds  of  salt  and  2  pounds  of  sugar  to  100  gallons  of  water. 
The  largest  quantities  used  were  40  pounds  of  sugar  and  16  pounds  of  salt  per 
100  gallons,  while  the  average  seems  to  be  about  10  pounds  of  salt  and  10  of 
sugar  per  100  gallons  of  water.  There  is  undoubtedly  a  tendency  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  sugar  used,  and  a  few  canners  have  left  out  both  salt  and 
sugar  in  some  lots  of  peas  to  determine  whether  there  is  a  market  for  an 
unseasoned  product.  The  heavy  sirups  are  used  in  the  fancy  and  extra 
fancy  brands  of  goods,  the  amount  of  sugar  added  to  the  sirup  being  often  the 
only  difference  between  the  "  superlatively  good  "  and  the  "  best."  A  fairly 
sweet  sirup  is  sometimes  used  to  give  a  weak,  insipid,  sugarless  pea  some 
semblance  of  quality,  also  to  make  the  smooth  pea  as  sweet  as  the  sweet 
wrinkled  variety.  Analyses  of  35  brands  of  peas  purchased  in  the  open 
market  show  the  sugar  content  of  the  liquor  to  vary  between  0.46  and  4.17 
per  cent,  the  average  being  2.62  per  cent.  More  sugar  is  found  in  eastern 
than  in  western  packed  peas,  and  in  the  domestic  than  in  the  foreign  peas. 

After  being  filled  the  can  is  passed  through  the  wiping  machine,  the  cap  is 
put  on  and  soldered  in  the  automatic  capper,  the  tipping  foUows,  and  then 
comes  the  final  inspection  in  the  water  bath  for  leaks.  At  one  factory  the 
cans  were  passed  through  an  exhauster  for  the  double  purpose  of  heating  them 
uniformly  and  of  driving  off  a  certain  characteristic  odor  which  is  objection- 
able. 

Peas  are  processed  in  retorts  under  pressure,  or  in  a  solution  of  a  calcium 
salt,  in  order  to  secure  a  temperature  above  that  of  boiling  water.  The 
time  and  temperature  necessary  to  sterilize  peas  cannot  be  given  with  cer- 
tainty because  of  the  variation  in  factory  practice  and  conditions  which 
must  be  taken  into  account.  If  all  factories  handled  their  material  promptly 
after  being  cut  in  the  field,  allowed  no  delays,  such  as  standing  on  wagons  or 
in  piles  to  ferment,  washed  the  peas  well  as  soon  as  thrashed,  graded  them 
equally  well,  blanched  them  according  to  their  needs,  siruped  and  fiUed  the 
cans  the  same,  tipped  the  cans  at  the  same  temperature,  and  brought  them 
to  the  process  tank  under  like  conditions,  it  would  be  possible  to  develop 
a  process 'which  might  be  safe  for  nearly  all  localities.     Such  ideal  conditions 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


3" 


are  not  to  be  found  in  practice,  and  hence  it  is  that  one  factory  will  employ  a 
a  process  of  240°  F.  for  twenty  minutes  and  do  it  successfully,  while  another 
must  double  the  time  before  being  reasonably  successful  in  preventing 
spoilage.  The  effect  of  long  processing  is  to  cause  a  gradual  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  free  liquor  in  the  can  and  to  cause  the  peas  to  become  sticky  and 
adherent.     This  effect  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Table  40.  Effect  of  Variation  in  Time  of  Processlng  on  Liquor 
Content  of  Can 


Grade  of  Peas 

Grams  op  Liquor  in  Cans  processed  for 

20 
Minutes 

25 

Minutes 

30 
Minutes 

35 
Minutes 

50 

Minutes 

SS 
Minutes 

Marrowfat     .     .     . 

Sifted 

Petits  pois     .     .     . 

215 

155 
155 

212 
140 
ISO 

190 
125 
125 

165 
IIS 
"S 

70 
90 
60 

60 
85 
50 

The  peas  were  sufRciently  cooked  in  twenty-five  minutes,  and  at  each 
succeeding  step  they  became  thicker  and  stickier. 

Examination  of  commercial  canned  peas.  Peas  were  purchased  from  15 
groceries,  representing  135  brands,  125  of  which  were  of  domestic  production 
and  10  were  imported.  With  the  exception  of  5  brands,  the  domestic  peas 
were  put  up  in  standard  No.  2  cans.  The  average  weight  of  a  can  of  peas  was 
found  to  be  705  grams  (25.2  ounces) ;  the  can,  103  grams  (3.66  ounces) ;  the 
peas,  after  the  liquor  was  allowed  to  drain  through  a  sieve  for  one  minute, 
394  grams  (14  ounces) ;  and  the  liquor,  208  grams  (7.5  ounces).  The  varia- 
tion in  the  total  weight  was  between  650  and  735  grams ;  the  can  between 
95  and  110  grams;  the  peas  between  301  and  605  grams;  and  the  liquor 
between  o  and  300  grams. 

In  the  experimental  work  it  was  determined  that  a  well-filled  can  should 
have  400  grams  of  peas  and  200  grams  of  liquor,  and  the  average  for  the  com- 
mercial brands  is  essentially  the  same.  When  a  can  contains  less  than  385 
grams,  it  is  usually  a  slack  fill,  unless  it  contains  marrowfat  or  telephone  peas ; 
if  it  contains  more  than  4x5  grams,  *.he  peas  will  be  overcrowded  or  the  liquor 
will  be  poor. 

Spoilage.  The  spoilage  in  canned  peas  may  be  classified  under  three 
heads :  (i)  That  due  to  leaks  in  the  :an ;  (2)  to  insufficient  processing ;  and 
(3)  to  spoilage  prior  to  the  canning. 

The  spoilage  due  to  leaks  is  largely  a  matter  of  carelessness  in  inspection. 


f 


312  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Goods  spoiled  owing  to  insufficient  processing  are  generally  classed  as 
"  swells  "  and  "  sours."  Formerly  spoilage  of  this  character  was  a  serious 
matter,  but  the  discovery  of  the  cause  and  the  means  of  prevention  has 
decreased  the  loss  from  this  source.  At  first  No.  2  cans  were  boiled  in  open 
kettles  from  one  to  three  hours,  and  the  losses  were  not  considered  large, 
although  the  percentage  would  probably  be  considered  high  at  this  time. 
Later  the  processing  was  done  in  a  retort  at  a  higher  temperature  than  that 
of  boiling  water,  in  order  to  reduce  the  time. 

The  spoilage  occurring  before  the  peas  enter  the  can  is  due  to  allowing 
them  to  stand  in  piles,  on  the  wagons  or  after  thrashing,  until  they  heat  and 
start  fermentation.  If  the  peas  are  kept  moving  from  the  vine  to  the  can,  the 
spoilage  from  this  source  is  very  small. 

Composition  of  legumes.  The  legumes  are  characterized  by 
high  protein  content,  as  will  readily  be  seen  from  the  table 
beyond,  where  these  and  other  vegetables  are  arranged  alpha- 
betically. 

It  will  be  seen  that  beans,  lentils,  and  peas  are  not  only  richer 
in  protein  than  other  vegetables,  but  when  dry  they  show 
higher  percentages  of  protein  than  does  fresh  or  canned  meat. 
Since  the  dry  legumes  contain  also  considerable  amounts  of 
carbohydrate  and  small  amounts  of  fat,  they  are  in  general  of 
higher  fuel  value  than  meats.  Meat  fat  enough  to  equal  the 
dry  legumes  in  energy  value  would  be  considerably  below  them 
in  protein  content. 

Legumes  also  furnish  important  quantities  of  iron,  phos- 
phorus, and,  to  a  less  conspicuous  degree,  calcium.  Notwith- 
standing the  high  protein  content,  the  base-forming  elements 
predominate. 

Digestibility.  Legumes  in  the  green  state  seem  to  be  more 
readily  digested  than  dried  legumes.  The  latter  have  been  sta- 
ple articles  of  diet  since  ancient  times,  but  have  almost  always 
been  considered  more  or  less  difficult  of  digestion.  This  im- 
pression is  based  more  upon  consciousness  of  the  digestive 
process  than  upon  measurements  of  actual  losses  in  digestion, 
since  the  latter  have  been  made  only  in  recent  years  and  show 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,  AND   NUTS 


313 


the  losses  are  not  so  large  as  might  be  supposed.  Only  the  more 
recent  experiments  will  be  cited  here. 

Snyder,  feeding  a  porridge  made  from  dried  peas  as  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  a  simple  mixed  diet,  found  the  coefficient  of  di- 
gestibility for  the  peas  alone :  protein,  80  per  cent,  and  carbo- 
hydrates, 96  per  cent,  —  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  peas  being  too 
small  for  an  accurate  measurement  of  its  digestibility. 

Woods  and  Mansfield,  in  an  experiment  in  which  baked  beans 
furnished  about  one  fourth  of  the  total  protein,  estimated  the 
coefficient  of  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  the  beans  at  78  per 
cent. 

Wait,  in  a  very  extended  series  of  digestion  experiments,^ 
in  which  legumes  were  fed  as  a  prominent  constituent  of  simple 
mixed  diets,  found  the  following  coeflEicients  of  digestibility  for 
the  legumes : 


Protein 


Carbohydrate 


Kidney  beans    .... 
White  beans       .... 
Cowpeas,  "  whippoorwill  " 
Cowpeas,  "  clay  "  .      .     . 
Cowpeas,  "  lady  "  . 


Per  cent 

77 
78 
70 
74 
83 


Per  cent 

94 
96 

87 
88 

95 


The  comparative  low  digestibility  of  protein  is  not  entirely 
a  matter  of  the  nature  of  the  protein  itself,  but  is  at  least  partly 
due  to  the  associated  substances,  for  when  the  isolated  protein 
is  fed,  a  much  higher  coefficient  is  obtained. 

Thus  in  a  Japanese  experiment  cited  by  Oshima  ^  in  which  a  soy-bean 
preparation  consisting  chiefly  of  the  bean  protein  was  fed,  the  coefficient  of 
digestibility  for  the  protein  was  96  per  cent,  and  Salkowski  found  a  coeflacient 
of  94  per  cent  for  the  isolated  protein  of  the  horse  bean. 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Bulletin  187. 

» United  Stated  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Bulletin  159. 


314 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Mendel  and  Fine/  feeding  a  man  with  a  simple  mixed  diet  of  which  90  per 
cent  of  the  protein  was  in  the  form  of  a  commercial  soy-bean  meal  "  which 
betrayed  no  cellular  structure  under  the  microscope,"  found  a  coefficient  of 
digestibility  of  85.3  for  the  protein  of  the  diet  as  against  87.9  and  88.0  for 
mixed  diets  in  which  the  protein  was  furnished  chiefly  by  meat  and  eggs. 

Utilization  in  metabolism.  In  the  experiment  of  Mendel  and 
Fine  just  quoted,  the  nitrogen  balance  showed  a  smaller  storage 
of  nitrogen  during  the  soy-bean  period  than  during  the  preceding 
and  following  periods,  in  which  the  source  of  protein  was  meat 
and  eggs,  indicating  a  slightly  less  favorable  utilization  of  the 
legume  protein  in  metabolism.  With  the  exception  of  the  early 
work  of  Rutgers  ^  this  appears  to  be  the  only  investigation  in 
which  nitrogen  balance  was  studied.  Osborne  and  Mendel 
have,  however,  shown  that  young  rats  can  make  active  growth 
and  normal  development  on  a  diet  with  glycinin  of  soy-bean  as 
the  sole  protein. 

Table  41.     Amino  Acids  from  Proteins  of  Legumes  (Osborne) 


Phaseolin 

ViGNIN 

Legumin 

ViCILIN 

Legumelin 

(Bean) 

(Cowpea) 

(Pea) 

(Pea) 

(Pea) 

Glycin 

0.55 

0.00 

0.38 

0.00 

0.50 

Alanin      .     .     . 

1.80 

0.97 

2.08 

0.50 

0.92 

Valin        .     .     . 

1.04 

0-34 

— 

0.15 

0.69 

Leucin      .     .     . 

9-65 

7.82 

8.00 

9-38 

9-63 

Prolin       .     .     . 

2.77 

5-25 

3-22 

4.06 

3-96 

Phenylalanin 

3-25 

5-27 

3-75 

3-82 

4-79 

Aspartic  acid     . 

5-24 

3-97 

S-30 

5-30 

4.11 

Glutamic  acid     . 

14-54 

16.89 

16.97 

21.34 

12.96 

Serin  .... 

0.38 

— 

0-53 

— 

— 

Tyrosin    . 

2.84 

2.26 

I-S5 

2.38 

1-56 

Arginin     .     .     . 

4.87 

7.20 

II. 71 

8.91 

5-45 

Histidin    . 

2.62 

3.08 

1.69 

2.17 

2.27 

Lysin  .... 

4-58 

4.28 

4.98 

5-40 

3-03 

Ammonia 

2.06 

2.32 

2.05 

2.03. 

1.26 

Tryptophan  . 

present 

present 

present 
62.21 

present 

present 

Summation     . 

56.19 

59-65 

65-44 

51-13 

'  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  10,  pages  435-438. 
*  Cited  in  Chemistry  of  Food  a>ui  Nutrition,  page  308. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND  NUTS  315 

The  chemical  nature  of  legume  proteins  as  indicated  by  the 
amino  acids  obtained  on  hydrolysis  has  been  investigated  by 
Osborne  with  the  results  as  shown  on  previous  page. 

In  these  cases  no  attempt  was  made  to  determine  cystin. 

These  results  indicate  that  the  proteins  of  the  legumes  are 
very  similar  in  chemical  constitution  to  those  of  meat. 

Physiological  efifects  of  peas  greened  with  copper.  Canned 
peas,  particularly  those  prepared  in  France  for  export  to  Eng- 
land and  to  the  United  States,  have  to  a  large  extent  been  treated 
with  small  quantities  of  copper  salts  to  preserve  or  intensify  the 
green  color. 

Under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  the  question  of  the  whole- 
someness  of  vegetables  thus  greened  with  copper  was  raised 
and  was  referred  to  the  Referee  Board  of  Consulting  Scientific 
Experts  for  investigation,  with  the  result  that  the  importation 
of  such  coppered  vegetables  has  been  forbidden.  The  following 
abstract  of  the  report  rendered  by  the  Referee  Board  is  from 
the  Experiment  Station  Record  published  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  is  here  given  verbatim  to  show 
the  experimental  methods  employed  and  the  reasoning  by  which 
the  conclusion  of  the  Board  was  reached. 

Influence  of  vegetables  greened  with  copper  salts  on  the  nutrition  and 
health  of  man.  I.  Remsen  et  al.  (  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Rpt.  gT,  pp.  461).  —  This 
report  of  the  Referee  Board  of  Consulting  Scientific  Experts  presents  in  detail 
and  discusses  the  experimental  data  obtained  in  the  four  series  of  investiga- 
tions, summarized  below : 

Action  of  coppered  vegetables  on  the  health  and  nutrition  of  men,  A.  E.  Taylor 
(pp.  9-208) .  —  In  these  experiments  normal  young  men  were  given  mixed  diets 
containing  measured  quantities  of  canned  vegetables  (notably  peas)  colored 
by  copper,  and  the  usual  means  were  taken  for  measuring  and  analyzing  the 
food  and  excreta  during  a  period  of  about  3  months.  The  author  summarizes 
the  results  as  follows : 

"  The  sole  results  that  are  clinically  apparent  in  the  subjects  who  ingested 
coppered  vegetables  in  amount  carrying  up  to  0.025  gm.  of  copper  per  day 
were  possibly  slight  disturbance  of  the  alimentary  tract  in  one ;  possibly  a 
slight  increase  in  unresorbed  nitrogen  in  a  second ;  and  possibly  a  slight  reduc- 


3l6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

tion  in  the  retention  of  nitrogen  in  the  same  individual.  These  data  are  of 
very  doubtful  value.  The  important  fact  that  has  developed  in  these  inves- 
tigations is  the  retention  of  copper.  In  all  the  subjects  there  was  retention 
of  copper,  varying  from  individual  to  individual ;  in  i  subject  very  high  con- 
sidering the  dosage,  in  2  marked,  in  others  low.  These  data  parallel  those  that 
have  been  obtained  by  Professor  Chittenden  in  animals.  And,  by  analogy, 
we  may  infer  that  the  retention  was  in  the  liver.  By  further  analogy  with 
lead  and  mercury,  we  may  infer  that  a  later  redistribution  may  occur  through- 
out the  body.  I  do  not  believe  such  a  retention  of  a  heavy  metal  can  be  a 
negligible  matter  even  in  the  complete  absence  of  present  symptoms  referable 
thereto;  the  whole  tenor  of  the  pharmacology  of  the  heavy  metals  is  con- 
trary to  such  an  interpretation.  It  will  be  only  safe  to  exclude  the  retention 
of  a  metal  like  copper  from  the  body.  The  retention  in  the  case  of  the  sub- 
jects of  this  experiment  followed  ingestions  of  copper  that  could  not  be 
called  large.  And  apparently  such  retention  might  be  expected  to  follow  any 
ingestion  of  coppered  vegetables.  Under  these  circumstances  the  ingestion 
of  vegetables  colored  with  copper  constitutes  a  menace  to  health." 

Investigations  of  the  ejects  of  foods  containing  copper  compounds  on  the 
general  health  and  metabolism  of  man,}.  H.  Long  (pp.  209-430).  —  The  method 
of  experimenting  was  similar  to  that  used  in  the  series  conducted  by  Taylor, 
but  the  tests  were  continued  for  4  months,  made  up  of  periods  in  which  the 
copper  dosage  was  varied.     The  author  reached  the  following  conclusions : 

"  During  the  lower  dosage  periods  with  copper  in  peas  our  records  point  to 
nothing  which  may  be  clearly  applied  in  showing  a  harmful  action  of  the 
metal.  It  appears  that  100  gm.  daily  of  peas  containing  10  mg.  of  copper 
occasioned  no  marked  disturbance  beyond  the  distaste  for  the  peas  them- 
selves. .  .  . 

"  About  the  only  conclusion  that  we  may  legitimately  draw  from  our  low 
dosage  experiments  is  that  it  may  be  difficult  to  feed  enough  peas  —  and  this 
may  be  even  more  truly  the  case  with  certain  other  vegetables  —  to  ingest 
copper  in  amount  sufficient  to  produce  a  harmful  action,  as  shown  by  clinical 
and  metabolism  observations. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certainly  true  that  copper  sulphate  as  ingested 
with  milk  or  beer  through  periods  of  some  weeks  is  far  from  being  harmless 
or  free  from  easily  observed  effects.  The  copper  in  this  form  has  apparently 
a  physiological  action  distinct  from  that  in  the  peas,  and  is  unquestionably 
more  active.  .  .  . 

"  The  addition  of  copper  salts  to  peas  and  other  vegetables  has  unques- 
tionably the  effect  of  suggesting  to  the  user  greater  freshness  than  may  be 
actually  the  case.  While  a  very  old  pea  may  not  be  easily  colored,  it  is  true 
that  peas  which  have  begun  to  harden,  and  are  far  from  the  young  or  fresh 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  317 

stage,  may  be  given  enough  copper  materially  to  brighten  their  appearance. 
In  this  way  it  is  clear,  a  certain  kind  of  inferiority  is  covered  up.  .  .  . 

"  If,  in  the  coppering  of  vegetables,  an  excess  of  the  metallic  salt  is  em- 
ployed, an  injurious  action  of  this  copper  may  certainly  be  affirmed.  This 
danger  is  not  a  remote  one,  as  a  high  copper  content  of  cans  of  peas,  with 
copper  in  the  liquor  as  well  as  in  the  solid,  has  frequently  been  reported.  In 
our  laboratory  experiments  we  have  been  able  to  show  that  an  excessive 
amount  of  copper  may  be  easily  added  and  loosely  held,  in  some  other  than 
the  ordinary  chlorophyll  combination.  As  long  as  this  possibility  is 
present  the  whole  coloring  process,  involving  the  use  of  a  heavy  metallic 
salt,  must  be  looked  upon  with  distrust,  and  must  be  considered  as  highly 
objectionable." 

Absorption  and  distribution  of  copper  when  coppered  vegetables  are  eaten, 
R.  H.  Chittenden  (pp.  431-448).  —  In  these  experiments  dogs  and  monkeys 
were  fed  with  coppered-  vegetables  in  order  to  ascertain  "  how  far  copper  is 
absorbed  and  to  what  degree  it  is  deposited  in  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the 
body  when  taken  in  small  doses  in  combination  with  a  food  such  as  canned 
peas." 

The  conclusions  of  the  author  are  that  "  when  coppered  vegetables  are 
eaten  with  the  food  a  certain  proportion  of  the  copper  is  absorbed  and  may 
be  temporarily  deposited  in  the  liver.  Even  when  taken  in  very  small 
amounts,  copper  ingested  in  this  way  is  prone  to  be  absorbed  in  some  degree, 
and  thus  constitutes  a  menace  to  good  health.  The  conclusion  seems 
obvious  that  vegetables  which  have  been  greened  with  copper  salts  are 
adulterated,  because  .they  contain  an  added  poisonous  or  deleterious  ingre- 
dient which  may  render  such  articles  of  food  injurious  to  health,  whether 
taken  in  large  quantities  or  in  small  quantities.  In  any  event,  there  is  an 
element  of  danger  in  coppered  foods  which,  from  a  physiological  standpoint, 
should  not  be  ignored." 

Histological  examination  of  the  tissues  of  dogs  and  monkeys,  T.  Smith  (pp. 
449-461) . — This  report  gives  the  results  of  autopsies  made  on  animals  used  in 
the  feeding  experiments  conducted  by  Chittenden. 

"  A  comparison  of  the  gross  and  minute  pathological  conditions  found  in 
the  8  dogs  shows  a  relatively  slight  yield  from  these  methods  of  inquiry.  A 
few  facts,  however,  seem  worthy  of  note. 

"  There  has  been  no  noticeable  influence  of  the  copper  salts  on  the  para- 
sites in  the  digestive  tract.  Thus,  dogs  Nos.  i  and  3  were  from  the  same 
litter  and  probably  infested  alike  with  worms  at  the  start.  But  the  autopsy 
showed  no  difference,  although  No.  3  had  been  fed  with  coppered  peas  and 
No.  I  with  uncoppered  peas.  Parasites  were  also  present  in  the  other  dogs 
fed  with  coppered  p>eas.  ...    In  general  it  can  be  stated  that  the  feeding 


3i8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

with  coppered  peas  did  not  have  any  decided  vermifuge  action.  .  .  .  Even 
the  copper  sulphate  did  not  completely  remove  intestinal  parasites. 

"  Very  little,  if  any,  appreciable  differences  were  found  between  the  con- 
trols on  the  one  hand  (Nos.  i  and  2)  and  the  dogs  fed  with  coppered  peas  on 
the  other  (Nos.  3  to  6).  There  was  some  fat  in  the  liver  of  No.  3  as  com- 
pared with  his  (control)  brother  No.  i.  More  than  this  cannot  be  stated. 
There  is,  however,  a  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  the  dogs  fed  with  cop- 
pered peas  and  those  fed  with  copper  sulphate.  No.  8  was  chloroformed 
before  the  close  of  the  experiment  because  ill.  In  both  No.  7  and  No.  8 
there  was  present  an  interstitial  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  localized  in  the 
cortex,  which  was  absent  in  all  the  others.  The  kidney  lesions  in  Nos.  i  and 
3  were,  as  already  stated,  due  to  parasites.  In  No.  8  there  was  also  other 
lesions  (extensive,  fresh  pigment  in  the  spleen,  leucocytosis)." 

In  the  case  of  monkeys  "  the  microscopic  examination,  as  far  as  it  went, 
did  not  reveal  any  differences  between  control  and  treated  monkeys.  It 
would  seem  as  if  this  species  of  animal  was  better  able  to  neutralize  the  poison- 
ous action  of  copper  sulphate  than  the  dog." 

From  a  study  of  these  4  reports,  the  Referee  Board  reached  the  following 
conclusion : 

"  Copper  salts  used  in  the  coloring  of  vegetables  as  in  commercial  practice 
cannot  be  said  to  reduce,  or  lower,  or  injuriously  affect  the  quality  or  strength 
of  such  vegetables,  as  far  as  the  food  value  is  concerned. 

"  Copper  salts  used  in  the  greening  of  vegetables  may  have  the  effect  of 
concealing  inferiority,  inasmuch  as  the  bright  green  color  imparted  to  the 
vegetables  simulates  a  state  of  freshness  they  may  not  have  possessed  before 
treatment. 

"  In  attempting  to  define  a  large  quantity  of  copper,  regard  must  be  had  to 
the  maximum  amount  of  greened  vegetables  which  might  be  consumed  daily. 
A  daily  dose  of  100  gm.  of  coppered  peas  or  beans,  which  are  the  most  highly 
colored  vegetables  in  the  market,  would  not  ordinarily  contain  more  than  100 
to  150  mg.  of  copper.  Such  a  bulk  of  greened  vegetables  is  so  large,  however, 
that  it  would  hardly  be  chosen  as  a  part  of  a  diet  for  many  days  in  succession. 
Any  amount  of  copper  above  1 50  mg.  daily  may  therefore  be  considered  ex- 
cessive in  practice.  A  small  quantity  is  that  amount  which,  in  the  ordinary 
use  of  vegetables,  may  be  consumed  over  longer  periods.  From  this  point  of 
\new,  10  to  12  mg.  of  copper  may  be  regarded  as  the  upper  limit  of  a  small 
quantity. 

"  It  appears  from  our  investigations  that  in  certain  directions  even  such 
small  quantities  of  copper  may  have  a  deleterious  action  and  must  be  con- 
sidered injurious  to  health." 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  319 

Potatoes,  Sweet  Potatoes,  and  Yams 

Langworthy  estimates  that  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  yams 
furnish  3.8  per  cent  of  the  protein,  0.3  per  cent  of  the  fat,  and 
8.^  per  cent  of  the  carbohydrate  of  the  average  American 
dietary. 

Census  reports  show  for  1909  a  production  in  the  United 
States  of  389,000,000  bushels  of  potatoes  valued  at  Si66,ooo,ooo 
and  59,232,000  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes  and  yams  valued  at 
$35,429,000. 

Since  relatively  small  quantities  of  potatoes  or  sweet  potatoes 
are  used  for  stock  feeding  or  for  the  manufacture  of  starch  or 
alcohol,  in  the  United  States,  the  yearly  consumption  as  food 
must  be  nearly  the  amounts  produced  or  about  4  bushels  per 
capita. 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  America,  said  to  have  been  first 
found  in  Chili,  and  it  was  not  commonly  cultivated  in  Europe 
until  the  eighteenth  century. 

At  present  potatoes  are  raised  in  large  quantities  in  Europe 
both  for  food,  for  industrial  purposes  such  as  starch,  glucose, 
and  alcohol  manufacture,  and  for  stock-feeding.  Estimates  of 
per  capita  consumption  of  potatoes  as  human  food  in  European 
countries  are  not  at  hand. 

For  description  of  the  potato  industry,  the  reader  must  be 
referred  to  books  on  agriculture  and  horticulture.  A  very  com- 
prehensive discussion  will  be  found  in  "  The  Potato  Industry  of 
Colorado,"  published  as  Bulletin  158  of  the  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

Composition.  The  averages  of  American  analyses  are  tabu- 
lated with  those  of  other  vegetables  beyond  (Table  42).  In 
round  numbers  the  potato  contains  2  to  2.5  per  cent  of  protein; 
18  to  20  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  chiefly  starch;  almost  no 
fat ;  about  i  per  cent  of  ash ;  and  75  to  79  per  cent  of  water. 
Or,  in  still  simpler  terms,  about  three  fourths  of  the  potato  is 


320  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

water,  and  of  the  solids  there  is  about  eight  times  as  much 
starch  as  protein,  a  little  fiber,  a  very  little  fat,  and  an  amount 
of  ash  which  is  relatively  large  in  comparison  with  most  other 
foods. 

Digestion  experiments  with  potatoes  fed  in  considerable 
quantity  to  healthy  men  have  been  reported  by  Rubner,  by 
Snyder,  and  by  Bryant  and  Milner,  who  found  respectively 
68,  72,  and  73  per  cent  of  the  protein  and  92,  93,  and  99  per  cent 
of  the  carbohydrate  utilized.  Thus  the  fuel  value  of  the  potato 
is  as  well  utilized  as  that  of  most  foods,  and  at  least  70  per  cent 
of  the  protein  is  digested  and  absorbed. 

The  nutritive  economy  of  potatoes  as  food  will  be  discussed 
later  in  this  chapter. 

Structure  of  the  potato.  Since  the  potato  tuber  is  in  reality 
a  thickened  stem,  it  can  be  seen  to  consist  of  fairly  definite  an- 
atomical parts.  The  following  description  is  taken  from  Lang- 
worthy,  Farmers'  Bulletin  295  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture : 

The  outer  skin  of  the  tuber  consists  of  a  thin,  grayish  brown, 
corky  substance  and  corresponds  roughly  to  the  bark  of  an  over- 
ground stem.  If  a  crosswise  section  of  a  raw  potato  is  held  up 
to  the  light,  three  distinct  parts  besides  the  skin  may  be  seen. 
The  outermost  one  is  known  as  the  cortical  layer  and  may  be 
from  0.12  to  0.5  inch  in  thickness.  This  layer  is  slightly  colored, 
the  tint  varying  with  the  kind,  and  turns  green  if  exposed  to 
the  light  for  some  time,  thus  showing  its  relation  to  the  tender 
green  layer  beneath  the  bark  of  overground  stems.  It  is  denser 
than  the  other  parts  of  the  potato  and  contains  many  fibro- 
vascular  bundles,  especially  on  the  inner  edge,  where  a  marked 
ring  of  them  plainly  separates  this  layer  from  the  next.  The 
interior  or  flesh  of  the  tuber  is  made  up  of  two  layers  known  as 
the  outer  and  inner  medullary  areas.  The  outer  one  forms  the 
main  bujjc  of  a  well-developed  potato  and  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  food  ingredients.     The  inner  medullary  area,  some- 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,  AND   NUTS 


321 


times  called  the  core,  appears  in  a  cross  section  of  the  tuber  to 
spread  irregular  arms  up  into  the  outer,  so  that  its  outline 
roughly  suggests  a  star.     It  contains  slightly  more  cellulose 


Fig.  23.  —  Transverse  and  longitudinal  sections  of  the  potato :  a,  skin  ;  b,  corti- 
cal layer  ;  c,  outer  medullary  layer ;  d,  inner  medullary  layer.  (U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.) 

and  less  water  and  nutrients  than  the  outer  medullary  portion. 
These  four  parts  of  the  tuber  are  shown  in  Fig.  23. 

The  corky  skin  of  the  potato  makes  up  about  2.5  per  cent  of  the 
whole,  and  the  cortical  layer  8.5  per  cent,  leaving  89  per  cent 
for  the  medullary  areas.  .  ,  . 


322 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


As  in  all  other  plant  forms,  the  framework  of  the  tuber  is  made 
up  of  cellulose.  Cellulose  forms  the  walls  of  a  network  of  cells, 
which  in  turn  form  the  body  of  the  tuber.  These  cells  vary  in 
shape  and  size  in  different  sections  of  the  tuber  according  to 
the  part  they  play  in  its  life.  In  the  flesh  they  serve  mainly 
for  storage,  and  in  them  lie  the  starch  grains.    (See  Fig.  24.) 

In  young  tubers  there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  sugars  and  less 
starch  than  when  they  have  become  mature.  As  the  tuber  lies 
in  the  ground  the  starch  content  increases.  When  it  begins  to 
sprout,  however,  part  of  the  starch  is  converted  by  a  ferment 
in  the  tuber  into  soluble  glucose.     Thus,  young  or  early  potatoes 


Fig.   24.  —  Changes  of  potato  starch  cells  in  cooking  :   a,  raw  ;  b,  partially  cooked  ; 
c,  thoroughly  cooked.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

and  old  ones  both  have  a  smaller  proportion  of  starch  and  more 
soluble  sugars  than  well-grown  but  still  fresh  tubers.  The 
effect  of  cooking  on  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  potato  cells 
is  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

The  figures  show  the  great  changes  in  the  mechanical  condi- 
tion of  the  potato  flesh  under  the  influence  of  heat,  the  broken 
cell  walls  and  the  increased  bulk  of  the  starch  grains  being 
particularly  noticeable. 

The  sweet  potato  plant  (IponKsa  batata  or  Batatas  edulis)  is 
not  closely  related  to  the  white  potato,  botanically,  but  in  com- 
position and  use  as  food  the  tubers  are  much  alike,  the  sweet 
potato  having  in  general  about  the  same  nutrients  as  the  white 
potato  and  in  addition  from  5  to  8  per  cent  of  sugar. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  323 

Recently  the  canning  of  sweet  potatoes  has  developed  into 
an  important  industry,  and  has  made  these  vegetables  available 
as  a  staple  food  throughout  the  year. 

For  further  accounts  of  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes,  reference 
may  be  made  to  Farmers'  Bulletins  295  and  324  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Other  Vegetables 

The  Census  Bureau  reports  that  except  for  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  yams,  which  are  generally  grown  in  considerable 
quantities,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  obtain  a  correct  total 
of  the  acreage,  production,  or  value  of  individual  kinds  of  vege- 
tables. The  value  of  vegetables  reported  for  the  census  year 
1909  amounted  to  $216,257,000  (exclusive  of  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  yams  and  dried  beans  and  peas). 

The  largest  industry  here  involved  is  that  of  canning  tomatoes, 
of  which  there  were  put  up  in  canning  factories  in  the  United 
States,  in  the  census  year  1909,  a  total  of  12,800,000  cases  of 
1 2  cans  each.  This  is  exclusive  of  the  tomatoes  canned  at  home 
and  also  of  the  manufacture  of  ketchups,  sauces,  etc. 

The  canning  of  tomatoes  presents  no  special  features  requiring 
detailed  description.  The  acidity  of  the  material  makes  it 
possible  to  sterilize  the  canned  product  with  greater  certainty 
and  at  a  lower  temperature  than  in  the  case  of  peas  or  of  canned 
meat. 

The  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection  has  ruled  that  the 
water  naturally  present  in  tomatoes  is  ample  to  serve  as  a 
medium  for  the  cooking  and  packing  processes  involved  in 
tomato  canning,  and  that  the  addition  either  of  water  or  of  juice 
in  the  canning  of  tomatoes  shall  be  judged  an  adulteration. 

In  the  absence  of  data  which  would  permit  a  discussion  of 
the  relative  amounts  grown  and  used,  it  seems  unnecessary  here 
to  enter  into  any  description  of  the  sources  and  technology 
of  the  different  kinds  of  vegetables. 


324 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Composition  of  Vegetables 

The  average  composition  of  practically  all  vegetables  used  for 
food  to  any  important  extent  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in 
the  following  table,  which  is  based  chiefly  on  analyses  compiled 
by  Atwater  and  Bryant,  and  published  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture : 

Table  42.    Average  Composition  of  American  Vegetables* 


Dbscmption 


7 

Artichokes        .     .     . 
A^aragus,  fresh 
Asparagus,  cooked    . 
Beans,  butter,  green : 

Edible  portion  .     . 

As  purchased  .  . 
Beans,  dried  .  .  . 
Beans,  frijoles  (New 
Mexico)  .  .  . 
Beans,  Lima,  dried  . 
Beans,  Lima,  fresh  : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased  .  . 
Beans,  mesquite,  dry 
Beans,  string,  cooked : 

Edible  portion  .  . 
Beans,  string,  fresh : 

Edible  portion  .     . 

As  purchased     .     . 


S3 


Per 

cent 


50.0 


S5-0 


7.0 


Per 
cent 

79-S 
94.0 
91.6 

58.9 
29.4 
12.6 

7-5 
10.4 

68.S 

30.8 

4.8 

95-3 

S9.2 
83.0 


Per 

cent 

2.6 
1.8 
2.1 

9.4 

4-7 
22.5 

21.9 
18.1 

7-1 

3-2 

12.2 


2-3 
2.1 


Per 
cent 


o«2 


Per 
cent 

16.7 

3-3 

2.2 

29.1 
14.6 

59-6 

65.1 
65-9 

22.0 
9.9 

77.1 

1.9 

7-4 
6.9 


ogss 

g  15  Z 


Per 
cent 


m-4 


1-7 


1.8 


H 

►J  ^ 


Col. 

358 
101 
213 

723 
361 

1564 

1633 
1586 

557 

250 

1723 

94 

189 
176 


'Such  vegetables  as  potatoes,  squash,  beets,  etc.,  have  a  certain  amount  of 
inedible  material,  skin,  seeds,  etc.  The  amount  varies  with  the  method  of  prepar- 
ing the  ve^tables,  and  cannot  be  accurately  estimated.  The  figures  given  for 
refuse  of  vegetables,  fruits,  etc.,  are  assumed  to  represent  approximately  the  amount 
of  refuse  in  these  foods  as  ordinarily  prepared. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


325 


Table  42.    Average  Composition  of  American  Vegetables — Continued 


Description 


Beets,  cooked  .     . 
Beets,  fresh : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased  . 
Cabbage : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased    . 
Cabbage,  curly 
Cabbage  sprouts : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased  . 
Carrots,  fresh : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased    . 
Carrots,  evaporated 
Cauliflower       .     . 
Celery : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased  . 
Chard  .... 
Collards : 

Edible  portion  . 
Corn,  green : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased  . 
Cucumbers : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased  . 
Eggplant,  edible  portion 
Greens,  beet,  cooked 
Greens,  dandelion,  as 
purchased  .  . 
Greens,  turnip-salad. 
Kohl-rabi,  edible  portion 


24 


16 


Per 
cent 


I5-0 


61.8 


61.0 


ISO 


u 

H 

< 

0 
oi 
Ph 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

88.6 

2-3 

87.S 

1.6 

70.0 

1-3 

91-5 

1.6 

77-7 

1.4 

87-3 

41 

88.2 

4-7 

33-7 

1.8 

88.2 

I.I 

70.6 

•9 

35 

7-7 

92.3 

1.8 

94- S 

I.I 

7S-6 

•9 

89.6 

3-2 

87.1 

4-5 

75-4 

3-1 

29.4 

1.2 

95-4 

.8 

81. 1 

•7 

92.9 

1.2 

89-5 

2.2 

81.4 

2.4 

86.7 

4.2 

91. 1 

2.0 

Per 
cent 


•4 

.2 

3.6 

•5 


I.I 
•4 

.2 

.2 

•3 

3-4 

i.o 
.6 
.1 


Per 
cent 

7-4 


9-7 

7-7 

5-6 
4.8 
6.2 

4-3 
1-7 

9-3 

7-4 

80.3 

4-7 

3-3 
2.6 

S-o 

6.3 

19.7 
7-7 

31 
2.6 

S-i 
3-2 

10.6 
6.3 

s-s 


«  o  " 


«  u  •< 


Per 
cent 


n  -9 


{')i.i 


n/.7 


C)/.o 


C)  .5 


e)  .7 


13 


I.I 
•9 

1.0 

•9 
1.8 

1-7 
.6 

1.0 

•9 
4.9 

•7 

1.0 

.8 

1.6 

i-S 

•  7 
•3 

•5 

.4 

•S 

1-7 

4.6 
2.2 
1-3 


326 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  42.    Average  Composition  of  American  Vegetables — Continued 


DESCRIPnON 


Leeks : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased    . 
Lentils,  dried 
Lettuce : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased  . 
Mushrooms  .  . 
Okra: 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased  . 
Onions,  fresh : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased     . 
Onions,  cooked 
Onions,  green  (New 
Mexico) : 

Edible  portion  . 

As  purchased  . 
Parsnips : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased  . 
Peas,  dried  .  . 
Peas,  green : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased     . 
Peas,  green,  cooked 
Peas,  sugar,  green 
Cowpeas,  dried 
Cowpeas,    green,  edible 

portion      .     .     . 
Potatoes,  raw  or  fresh : 

Edibl^  portion 

As  puithased    .     . 


u 
w 

Per 
cent 

I 

— 

I 

iS-o 

3 

— 

8 

— 

— 

iS-o 

II 

— 

2 

— 

— 

12.S 

IS 

— 

— 

lO.O 

I 

2 



— 

Si.o 

3 

— 

— 

20.0 

8 

— 

S 

— 

— 

4S-0 

I 

— 

I 

— 

13 

1 

136 



— 

20.0 

Per 
cent 

91.8 

78.0 

8.4 

94-7 
80.S 
88.1 

90.2 
78.9 

87.6 

78.9 
91.2 


87.1 
42.6 

83.0 

66.4 

9-5 

74.6 
40.8 
73-8 
81.8 
13.0 

—      65.9 

78.3 
62.6 


Per 
cent 


1.2 
I.O 

25-7 

1.2 
1.0 

3-5 

1.6 
1.4 

1.6 
1.4 
1.2 


1.0 
•5 

1.6 

1-3 
24.6 

7.0 
3-6 
6.7 
3-4 
21.4 

9.4 

2.2 
1.8 


.  g 

u  S  ai 
U  ai  « 

^S2 


Per 
cent 


Per 
cent 

5.8 

S-o 

59-2 

2.9 

2.S 
6.8 

7-4 
6.5 

9.9 
8.9 
4.9 


II. 2 

13-5 
10.8 
62.0 

16.9 

9.8 

14.6 

13-7 
60.8 

22.7 

18.4 
14.7 


-'I 

°  M  £ 

eo5 


Per 
cent 


D  .7 

(«)  .8 
(})3-4 


C) 


0)2.5 
(?)4-5 

1.6 
4.1 


(»)  .4 


.6 
•3 

1.4 
I.I 
2.9 

1.0 
.6 

:  -7 

3-4 
1.4 

1.0 

.8 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


327 


Table  42.    Average  Composition  of  American  Vegetables  —  Continued 


Description 


Uw  I 


sg 


go" 

«/  w  < 

(1,     " 


Potatoes,  evaporated     . 
Potatoes,  cooked,  boiled 
Potatoes,  cooked,  chips 
Potatoes,  cooked, 

mashed,  and  creamed 
Potatoes,  sweet,  raw,  or 
fresh : 

Edible  portion        .     . 

As  purchased  .  .  . 
Potatoes,  sweet,  cooked 
Pumpkins : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Radishes : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Rhubarb : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Rutabagas : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Sauerkraut 
Spinach,  fresh 
Spinach,  cooked 
Squash : 

Edible  portion 

As.  purchased 
Tomatoes,  fresh 
'I'omatoes,  dried 
Turnips : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 


95 


27 


19 


Per 

cent 


50.0 


30.0 


40.0 


30.0 


SCO 


30.0 


Per 

cent 

7-1 

75-5 

2.2 

75-1 


69.0 
55-2 
51-9 

93-1 
46.S 

91.8 
64-3 

94.4 
S6.6 

88.9 
62.2 
88.8 

92-3 
89.8 

88.3 

44.2 

94-3 

7-3 

89.6 
62.7 


Per 
cent 

8.5 

2-5 

6.8 
2.6 


1.8 
1.4 
3-0 

i.o 

•5 

1-3 
■9 

.6 
•4 

1-3 

•9 

1-7 

2.1 
2.1 

1.4 

•7 

•9 

12.9 

1-3 
•9 


Per 
cent 

•4 

.1 

39-8 

3-0 


Per 
cent 

80.9 
20.9 
46.7 

17.8 


27.4 
21.9 
42.1 

5-2 
2.6 

5-8 
4.0 

3-6 
2.2 

8.5 
6.0 
3-8 
3-2 
2.6 

9.0 

4-5 

3-9 

62.3 

8.1 
S-7 


Per 
cent 


(}).6 


ni-3 


{')  .7 


C)/./ 


«  .8 


O/.j 


Per 
cent 

31 
1.0 

4-5 
1-5 


I.I 
•9 
•9 

.6 
•3 

1.0 

•7 

.7 
•4 

I.I 
.8 
5-2 
2.1 
1.4 


•4 

•5 

9.4 

.8 
.6 


328 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  42.    Average  Composition  of  American  Vegetables — Continued 


Ui 

>>  g 

III 

«  « 

Descmption 

0  ffl 

H 
P 
H 
Pi 

1 

OS    »   S>i 

<:^  w 

s«2 

S  C  a 

» 2  s 

' 

Si 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Co/. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

vegetables,  canned 

Artichokes        .     '     .     . 

3 

— 

92.S 

.8 

— 

50 

.6 

1-7 

I  OS 

Asparagus 

14 

— 

94-4 

i-S 

.1 

2.8 

■5 

1.2 

82 

Beans,  baked   .... 

21 

— 

68.9 

6.9 

2.5 

19.6 

H2.5 

2.1 

583 

Beans,  string    .... 

29 

— 

93-7 

I.I 

.1 

3-8 

(^*)   .5 

1-3 

93 

Beans,  little  green     .     . 

I 

— 

93-8 

1.2 

.1 

3-4 

.<5 

1-5 

87 

Beans,  wax       .... 

I 

— 

94.6 

I.O 

.1 

3-1 

.6 

1.2 

78 

Beans,  haricots  verts     . 

7 

— 

95-2 

I.I 

.1 

2-5 

■5 

I.I 

69 

Beans,  haricots  flageolets 

3 

— 

81.6 

4.6 

.1 

12.5 

1.0 

1.2 

314 

Beans,  Lima     .... 

16 

— 

79-5 

4.0 

•3 

14.6 

C*)7.2 

1.6 

3SO 

Beans,  red  kidney,  shelled 

I 

— 

72.7 

7.0 

.2 

18.5 

7.2 

1.6 

471 

Brussels  sprouts,  as  pur- 

chased      .... 

I 

— 

93-7 

1-5 

.1 

3-4 

•S 

1-3 

93 

Com,  green  ^    .     .     .     . 

52 

— 

76.1 

2.8 

1.2 

19.0 

n  .8 

•9 

445 

Com  and  tomatoes   .     . 

2 

— 

87.6 

1.6 

•4 

9.6 

■5 

.8 

220 

Macedoine   (mixed 

vegetables)     .     .     . 

S 

— 

93-1 

1.4 

— 

4-5 

.6 

1.0 

107 

Okra*     .     .     . 

4 
88 



94.4 
85.3 

•  7 
3-6 

.1 

3-6 
9.8 

■7 

1.2 

82 

Peas,  green '     , 

— 

.2 

I.I 

251 

Potatoes,  sweet 

2 

— 

SS-2 

1.9 

•4 

41.4 

W  .s 

I.I 

802 

Pumpkins    . 

7 

S 

12 



91.6 
87.6 

75-9 
94.0 

.8 

.2 

6.7 
10.5 
18.6 

(^)l.l 

.7 

144 

Squash    . 

•9 
3-6 
1.2 

•5 
1.0 

(')  .7 

C")  -P 
(")  .5 

227 

Succotash    . 

.0 

AAA 

Tomatoes  *  . 

19 

.2 

4.0 

.6 

103 

pickles,  condiments. 

T^ 

etc. 

Catsup,  tomato    .     .     . 

2 

— 

82.8 

i-S 

.2 

12.3 

3-2 

259 

Horseradish      .... 

2 

— 

86.4 

1.4 

.2 

lo.s 

I-S 

224 

•Thirty-two  samples  contained  an  average  of  0.4  per  cent  NaCl. 
'Three  samples  contained  an  average  of  i.i  per  cent  NaCl. 
•Eighty  samples  contained  an  average  of  0.7  per  cent  NaCl. 
<  Seven  samples  contained  an  average  of  o.i  per  cent  NaCl. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


329 


Table  42.    Average  Composition  of  American  Vegetables  —  Continued 


Description 


PICKLES,  condiments, 
ETC. 

Olives,  green : 

Edible  portion  .     . 

As  purchased     .     . 
Olives,  ripe : 

Edible  portion  .     . 

As  purchased    .     . 
Peppers  (paprica), green 

dried     .... 
Peppers,  red  chili 
Pickles,  cucumber 
Pickles,  mixed,  as  pur- 
chased      ... 


, 

s  ^ 

01 
u 

H 

< 

1 

5 

d^ 

H   5  'S 

1 

^S2 

£q2 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

P<f 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

ce«/ 

cen< 

cent 

I 

27.0 

58.0 

I.I 
.8 

27.6 

II.6 

8.S 

1-7 
1.2 

42.3 

I 

— 

64.7 
52.4 

1-7 

25-9 

4-3 
3-5 

3-4 
2.7 

1.4 

I 

5 
3 

— 

5-3 
92.9 

93-8 

iS-S 

8.5 

7-7 

63.0 

70.0 

2.7 

8.0 
7.6 
3-6 

.7 

9.4 
•5 

•3 

•4 

4.0 

Co/. 


I3S7 
994 

1 166 
947 

1771 

1756 

66 

109 


The  nutritive  economy  of  vegetables  and  their  place  in  the 
diet  is  discussed  in  connection  with  fruits  and  nuts  further  on  in 
this  chapter.  ^ 

Fruits  and  Nuts 

Census  reports  show  for  1909  a  production  of  fruits  and  nuts 
(exclusive  of  peanuts)  in  the  United  States  amounting  in  value 
to  $222,024,000. 

Of  this,  "small  fruits"  contributed  $29,974,000;  orchard 
fruits,  $140,867,000;  grapes,  $22,028,000;  citrus  fruits,  $22,- 
711,000;  other  tropical  and  subtropical  fruits,  $1,995,000; 
nuts,  $4,448,000. 

The  value  of  the  peanut  crop  was  reported  at  $18,272,000. 

Of  the  "  small  fruits,"  strawberries  represented  over  half  the 
total  acreage  and  about  three  fourths  of  the  total  value ;   next 


33° 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


in  order  of  value  of  product  among  the  small  fruits  follow  rasp- 
berries, blackberries  (and  dewberries),  currants,  gooseberries, 
and  cranberries. 

Among  the  orchard  fruits,  apples  are  much  the  most  important, 
being  about  three  fifths  of  the  total.  Peaches  and  nectarines 
rank  next,  followed  by  plums  and  prunes,  pears,  cherries,  and 


Fig.  25.  —  Production  of  fruits  and  nuts  in  the  United  States.     (Census  of  1910.) 


apricots  and  quinces  in  the  order  named.  From  150,000,000 
to  175,000,000  bushels  of  apples  are  produced  in  the  United 
States  each  year. 

Among  the  citrus  fruits,  oranges  lead  with  a  production  of 
19,487,481  boxes  valued  at  $17,566,464;  then  follow  lemons 
with  2,770,313  boxes  valued  at  $2,993,738,  and  grapefruit 
(pomeloes)  with  1,189,250  boxes  valued  at  $2,060,610.  The 
production  of  grapefruit  showed  a  very  rapid  increase  between 
1900  and  1 9 10.  The  production  of  the  other  citrus  fruits, 
limes,  tsCHgerines,  mandarins,  and  kumquats  is  so  far  below  that 
of  oranges,  lemons,  and  grapefruit  as  to  play  no  significant  part 
in  the  fruit  supply. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  33 1 

Olive  culture  in  the  United  States  is  practically  confined  to 
California  and  Arizona.  The  crop  of  1909,  16,405,000  pounds, 
was  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  1899. 

The  widely  varying  extent  to  which  the  different  states  con- 
tribute to  the  fruit  and  nut  supply  is  shown  by  Fig.  25. 

The  growing,  packing,  and  ordinary  handling  of  fruits  is 
discussed  in  works  on  horticulture  and  need  not  be  taken  up  here. 

There  are,  however,  certain  modern  practices  in  the  fruit 
industry  which  may  be  worthy  of  note  because  of  their  influence 
in  systematizing  the  fruit  supply,  particularly  in  facilitating 
the  marketing  of  California  fruit  in  the  eastern  cities.  The 
following  notes  on  this  industry  are  based  on  the  account  given 
in  Powell's  Cooperation  in  Agriculture: 

California  oranges  and  lemons  are  handled  differently  from  any  other 
American  fruit.  They  are  staple  products  ripening  less  quickly  than  most 
fruits,  and  the  distribution  and  marketing  have  been  reduced  to  a  systematic 
basis.  The  crop  now  amounts  to  about  50,000  carloads,  or  20,000,000  boxes, 
a  year.  This  is  the  product  of  more  than  1 2,000  growers,  about  three  fourths 
of  whom  are  organized  into  cooperative  associations,  sixty-five  per  cent  of 
which  are  federated  into  the  California  Fruit-growers'  Exchange.  These 
associations  build  packing-houses  in  which  the  fruit  of  the  members  is 
assembled,  graded,  packed,  and  made  ready  for  shipment,  these  operations 
being  usually  done  at  cost  prorated  on  the  number  of  boxes  shipped  by 
each  grower.  On  the  average  one  packing-house  suffices  for  about  500 
acres  of  orange  or  lemon  groves.  Many  of  the  associations  pick  the  fruit, 
and  some  of  them  prune  and  fumigate  the  trees  for  the  members.  The  as- 
sociations have  brands  for  each  grade  of  fruit,  and  when  a  carload  is  ready 
for  shipment,  it  is  marketed  in  cooperation  with  the  district  exchange  of 
which  the  association  is  a  member  through  the  agents  and  facilities  pro- 
vided by  the  central  exchange.  The  local  associations  have  (1913)  formed 
seventeen  district  exchanges.  Among  other  functions,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
district  exchange  to  act  as  the  business  medium  between  the  local  associa- 
tions and  the  central  exchange,  to  order  cars  and  see  that  they  are  placed 
by  the  railroads  at  the  various  packing-houses,  to  keep  records,  and  to 
distribute  to  the  local  associations  the  information  gathered  by  the  central 
exchange.  The  function  of  this  central  exchange  is  to  furnish  marketing 
facilities  for  the  district  exchanges  and  associations  at  a  pro  rata  share  of 


332  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  cost.  The  exchange  maintains  its  own  agents  in  the  principal  markets 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  supervises  these  agents,  gathers  daily 
information  through  them  of  conditions  in  each  market,  and  furnishes  this 
information  daily  in  bulletin  form  to  the  associations.  The  central  ex- 
change also  performs  other  functions  for  the  protection  of  its  members  and 
the  extension  of  the  industry,  but  makes  no  attempt  to  regulate  shipments 
or  to  influence  prices.  Each  shipper  has  entire  control  of  its  own  ship- 
ments, reserving  the  right  of  free  competition  with  all  other  shippers  even 
within  the  same  organization,  and  the  agent  in  the  market  acts  directly 
under  the  order  of  the  shipper.  There  is  no  uniformity  of  price  among 
the  different  brands,  each  brand  selling  on  its  own  merits.  This  system  is 
the  result  of  twenty  years'  development  and  has  been  a  large  factor  in 
changing  the  status  of  the  orange  from  a  luxury  to  a  staple  article  of  diet. 

Formerly  about  $1,000,000  worth  of  oranges  and  lemons 
were  lost  yearly  by  decay  during  shipment  to  market  from 
California.  This  loss  has  been  practically  eliminated  by  im- 
proved methods  of  picking  and  handling  the  fruit.  At  the 
same  time  the  introduction  of  "  precooUng  "  makes  it  possible 
to  market  a  fruit  which  is  of  superior  quaHty  through  having 
come  more  nearly  to  maturity  before  picking. 

The  fruit  is  cooled  to  35°  F.  before  shipping,  loaded  in  cars 
having  bunkers  filled  with  ice,  and  shipped  thus  without  re- 
icing  to  any  part  of  the  United  States.  The  cold  storage  plants 
operated  in  connection  with  the  pre-cooling  system  make  possible 
also  a  better  classification  of  the  fruit  in  shipment  from  the 
larger  accumulation  of  packed  fruit  in  the  storage  rooms. 

The  production  of  dried  fruit  is  a  very  large  industry  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  many  thousands  of  tons  of  peaches,  apricots, 
prunes,  and  raisins  are  dried  annually,  the  wholesale  value  of 
the  combined  product  (at  point  of  production)  being  estimated 
at  about  $20,000,000  a  year. 

During  most  of  the  year  California  dried  fruit  is  much  cheaper 
(in  proportion  to  the  solids  contained),  even  in  the  eastern 
markets^  than  is  the  corresponding  fresh  fruit  of  near-by  origin. 
Much  is  also  exported  to  European  countries  and  sold  at  prices 
within  reach  of  those  who  cannot  afford  to  buy  their  native 


VEGETABLES,    FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  333 

fresh  fruits.  Since  it  was  found  that  the  sunshine  and  dry  air 
of  California  make  out-door  drying  on  a  large  scale  practicable, 
the  drying  of  fruit  has  become  a  "  primary  industry  "  and  not 
simply  a  means  of  utilizing  a  surplus  crop.  Large  orchards  are 
planted  specifically  for  the  production  of  fruit  for  drying,  and 
very  large  amounts  of  capital  (aggregating  millions  of  dollars) 
are  invested  in  drying  establishments.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
fruit  which  is  to  be  dried  is  as  carefully  chosen  and  handled  with 
as  much  care  in  every  way  as  that  which  is  sold  fresh  or  canned. 
The  fruit  is  graded  so  that  all  the  fruit  on  a  drying  tray  shall  be 
approximately  the  same  size.  The  freshly  cut  fruit  is  placed 
on  trays  and  the  trays  placed  in  large  boxes  or  small  houses 
under  which  sulphur  is  burned.  This  treatment  of  the  fruit 
with  sulphur  dioxide  (called  sulphuring)  prevents  darkening 
and  fermentation  during  the  subsequent  air-drying  and,  as  at 
present  conducted,  is  said  also  to  protect  the  fruit  from  insects. 
It  is  also  claimed  that  the  sulphured  fruit  dries  more  rapidly 
than  the  untreated.  For  these  reasons  it  is  feasible  to  dry 
larger  pieces  when  the  sulphuring  process  is  used. 

Whether  the  sulphuring  process  shall  be  permitted,  and  if  so 
what  limit  shall  be  placed  upon  the  amount  of  sulphur  dioxide 
which  the  fruit  may  contain,  are  questions  not  yet  finally  decided 
by  those  charged  with  the  administration  of  the  Food  and  Drugs 
Act. 

After  the  fruit  is  suflSciently  dried  it  is  piled  in  houses  or 
placed  in  boxes  or  bins,  where  it  goes  through  a  "  sweating  " 
process  during  which  it  must  be  frequently  turned.  When  dan- 
ger of  further  sweating  is  past,  the  fruit  is  packed  in  boxes  of 
which  one  standard  size  is  6  X  9  X  15  inches  holding  25  pounds 
of  the  dried  fruit.  This  description  applies,  with  varying  details, 
to  the  drying  of  peaches,  apricots,  nectarines,  apples,  and  pears. 
Of  these  peaches  and  apricots  are  dried  in  largest  quantity. 

Prunes  are  handled  somewhat  differently,  since  they  are 
not  cut  before  drying.    As  a  rule  the  prunes  are  dipped  for 


334  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

about  a  minute  in  boiling  lye  to  thin  and  crack  the  skin,  then 
washed  to  remove  the  lye  and  dried  in  the  sun.  To  insure  a 
sterile  surface  they  may  be  dipped  after  drying  into  a  boiling 
solution  of  prune  juice,  glycerin,  or  salt. 

Raisins  are  also  dried  by  special  processes ;  and  these  differ 
too  much  according  to  locality  and  conditions  to  permit  of  a 
concise  general  description. 

Olives  are  grown  in  California  both  for  use  as  fruit  and  for  oil. 
In  a  study  of  26  varieties  of  olives  at  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia it  was  found  that  the  percentage  of  oil  in  the  whole  fruit 
varied  from  11.23  to  29.34  per  cent,  the  pits  constituted  from 
12.0  to  30.0  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  fruit.  The  olives 
varied  in  size  to  such  an  extent  that  the  number  of  olives  per 
pound  ranged  from  36  to  398 ;  usually  one  pound  contains  from 
100  to  250.  The  pickling  of  olives  is  a  troublesome  process, 
often  involving  much  loss.  Green  olives  are  more  easily  pickled, 
but  are  much  inferior  to  ripe  olives  as  food.  Ripe  olives  canned 
in  dilute  salt  solution  are  being  put  up  to  some  extent  in  Cali- 
fornia. Such  a  product  is  obviously  of  much  greater  food  value 
than  the  usual  immature  olive  impregnated  with  strong  brine. 
The  production  of  olive  oil  will  be  considered  in  Chapter  X. 

Nut  growing  in  California.  Almonds  and  English  walnuts 
are  the  nuts  chiefly  grown.  The  crop  varies  much  from  year 
to  year,  especially  in  the  case  of  almonds,  but  is  estimated  at 
about  5,000,000  pounds  of  almonds  and  16,000,000  pounds 
of  walnuts  per  year. 

Almonds  are  gathered  soon  after  the  hulls  burst  and  before 
the ,  shells  become  discolored.  Hulls  are  removed  by  special 
machinery.  The  nuts  are  then  dried  in  the  sun,  after  which 
they  are  generally  exposed  to  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  in  order 
to  insure  the  light  color  of  shell  which  the  market  demands. 
It  is  claimed  that  if  the  shell  has  been  properly  dried,  the  sulphur 
dioxide  does  not  penetrate  it  sufficiently  to  affect  the  kernel. 

Walnuts  are  dried  and  passed  over  a  revolving  grader  having 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


335 


a  wire  screen  of  one  inch  mesh ;  those  that  fall  through  are 
graded  as  seconds.  The  shells  are  commonly  bleached  either 
by  sulphur  dioxide,  hypochlorite,  or  chlorine. 

Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts 

The  average  composition  of  fruits  (fresh,  dried,  and  preserved), 
as  found  in  the  American  markets,  and  of  such  kinds  of  nuts 
as  are  of  commercial  importance,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table,  based  chiefly  on  data  compiled  by  Atwater  and  Bryant. 


Table  43.    Average  Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts 


Description 


FRUITS,  BERRIES,  ETC., 
FRESH 

Apples : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Apricots : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Bananas : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased  . 
Blackberries  .  . 
Cherries : 

Edible  portion 

\s  purchased 
Cranberries      .     . 
Currants     .     .     . 
Figs,  fresh       .     . 
Grapes : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   , 


29 


Per 
cent 


25.0 

6.0 

35-0 

5-0 
25.0 


Per 
cent 


84.6 
63-3 

85.0 
79-9 

75-3 
48.9 
86.3 

80.9 
76.8 
88.9 
85.0 
79.1 

77-4 
58.0 


Per 
cent 


Per 
cent 


1.6 
1.2 


«  2  oi 


"5 


O  '-' 

«2^ 


Pi 


§2 


Per 
cent 


14.2 
10.8 

13-4 
12.6 

22.0 

14.3 
10.9 

16.7 

iS-9 

9.9 

12.8 

18.8 

19.2 
14.4 


ft  tn"!? 

^  5!  W 

aj  O  "J 

W  M  w 
ec  H  m 

5  S  z 

9 


loS 


Per 
cent 


01.2 


{')2.5 
C)    .2 


i})4-3 


Per 

cent 


>  o 


Cal. 


28s 
214 

263 
247 

447 
290 
262 

3S4 
337 
212 

259 
368 

437 
328 


336 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  43.     Average  Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts  —  Continued 


Description 


w  S 
I" 


CQ    ^     M 

jg  <  R 


FRUITS,  BERRIES,  ETC., 
FRESH 

Huckleberries,  edible 

portion     .... 
Lemons : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Lemon  juice 
Muskmelons : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   . 
Nectarines : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   . 
Oranges : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Peaches : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   . 
Pears : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   .     . 
Persimmons,  edible  por- 
tion .... 
Pineapple,  edibleportion 
Plums : 

Edible  portion      .     . 

As  purchased    .     .     . 
Pomegranates,      edible 
portion     .     .     .     . 
Prunes: 

Ediblef  .portion      .     . 

As  purchased   .     .     . 


Per 

cent 


23 


30.0 


SCO 


6.6 


27.0 


50 


5-8 


Per 

cent 


81.9 

89-3 
62.5 


89-5 
44.8 

82.9 
77-4 

86.9 
63-4 

89.4 
73-3 

84.4 
76.0 

66.1 
89-3 

78.4 
74-5 

76.8 

79.6 
75-6 


Per 

cent 


I.O 

•7 


Per 

cent 


1.6 


Per 

cent 


16.6 

8.5 
5-9 
9.8 

9-3 
4.6 

15-9 
14.8 

11.6 
8.5 

9.4 

7-7 

14.1 
12.7 

31-5 
9-7 

20.1 
19.1 

19-5 

18.9 
17.4 


Per 

cent 


e)/.7 


1.8 
•4 


2.7 


Per 

cent 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,  AND   NUTS 


337 


Table  43.     Average  Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts  —  Continued 


Description 


"  td 


td 
IB  U3 

B  3 


s§ 


OS  S  « 
<  "  w 


sSs 


!,  *  a 

m 

«  3  < 

Is*- 


FRUITS,  BERRIES,  1 
FRESH 

Raspberries,  red 

Raspberries,  black 

Strawberries : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 

Watermelons : 
Edible  portion 
As  purchased 


FRUITS,   ETC.,   DRIED 

Apples        .     .     . 
Apricots      .     .     , 
Citron    .... 
Currants,  Zante 
Dates : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Figs        .... 
Prunes : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Raisins : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Raspberries     .     , 


FRUITS,  ETC.,  canned; 

AND    JELLIES,  PRE- 
SERVES,   ETC. 

Apples,  crab,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .  .     . 

.■Xpple  sauce,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .  .     . 


IS 


Per 
cent 


S-O 


59-4 


IS-O 


Per 
cent 

85.8 
84.1 

90.4 
85-9 

92.4 
37-5 


28.1 
29.4 
19.0 

17.2 

1 5-4 
13-8 
18.8 

22.3 
19.0 

14.6 

131 
8.1 


42.4 
61. 1 


Per 
cent 


I.O 
1-7 


1.0 
•9 


1.6 
4-7 
1-5 

2.4 

2.1 
1.9 
4-3 

2.1 
1.8 

2.6 
2.3 

7-3 


Per 
cent 


2.2 
1.0 
i-S 
1-7 

2.8 

2.5 

•3 


3-3 
3-0 
1.8 


2.4 
.8 


Per 
cent 

12.6 

12.6 

7-4 
70 

6.7 
2.7 


66.1 
62.5 
78.1 
74.2 

78.4 
70.6 
74.2 

73-3 
62.2 

76.1 
68.5 
80.2 


54-4 
37-2 


Per 
cent 


2.9 


r)i.4 


Per 
cent 


2.0 

2.4 

•9 

4-5 

1-3 
1.2 
2.4 

2-3 

2.0 

3-4 
3-1 
2.6 


338  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Table  43.    Average  Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts  —  Continued 


Description 


0  S  55 


ZSl 


3qS 


Eg 
>5 


3  W 


FRUITS,  ETC.,  CANNED  ; 
AND  JELLIES,  PRE- 
SERVES, ETC. 

Apricots,  as  purchased 

Apricot  sauce,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .     .     . 

Blackberries,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .     .     . 

Blueberries,  canned 

Cherries,  as  purchased 

Cherry  jelly : 

ist  quality,   as  pur- 
chased     .     .     .     . 
2d   quality,    as   pur- 
chased     .... 

Figs,  stewed,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .     .     . 

Grape  butter,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .     .     . 

Marmalade  (orange 
peel),  as  purchased 

Peaches,  as  purchased 

Pears,  as  purchased 

Pineapples,  as  pur- 
chased     .     .     .     . 

Prune  sauce,  as  pur- 
chased     .... 

Strawberries,  stewed,  as 
purchased     .     .     . 

Tomato  preserves,  as 
purchased     .     .     . 

NUTS 

Almonds : 

Edible'portion       .     . 
As  purchased        .     . 


Per 

cent 


45 -o 


Per 

cent 


81.4 
45-2 

40.0 
85.6 
77.2 

21.0 

38.4 

56.5 

36.7 

14.S 
88.1 
81. 1 

61.8 

76.6 

74.8 

40.9 


4.8 

2.7 


Per 

cent 


•9 
1.9 


.6 
I.I 


1.2 
1.2 


21.0 
"•5 


Per 

cent 


1-3 
2.1 

.6 


54-9 
30.2 


Per 

cent 


17-3 
48.8 

56.4 
12.8 
21. 1 

77.2 

59-8 

40.9 

58.5 

84-5 
10.8 
18.0 

36.4 

22.3 

24.0 

S7-6 


17-3 
95 


Per 
cent 


Per 

cent 


•4 
2.8 


•7 

.6 

I.I 

3-5 

•3 
•3 
•3 

•7 

•S 

•5 

•  7 


2.0 
I.I 


Col. 

330 
973 

1 1 24 
268 
407 

1421 

1 107 

776 

1087 

1548 
213 
344 

696 

417 

448 

1062 


2940 
1615 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


339 


Table  43.     Average  Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts  —  Continued 


Description 


nuts 
Beechnuts : 

Edible  portion      .     . 

As  purchased        .     . 
Brazil  nuts  {Bertholletia 
excelsa)  : 

Edible  portion       .     . 

As  purchased    .     .     . 
Butternuts  {Juglans 
cinerea)  : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Chestnuts,  fresh : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased    .     . 
Chestnuts,  dried : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   .     . 
Coconuts : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Coconut  without  milk, 

as  purchased 
Coconut  milk,  as  pur- 

■     chased      .     .     . 
Coconut,  prepared 
Filberts : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Hickory  nuts : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 
Lichi  nuts : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased   . 


Per 
cent 


40.8 

49.6 

86.4 

16.0 

24.0 

48.8 
37-3 

S2.I 

62.2 
41.6 


Per 

cent 


4.0 
2-3 


5-3 
2.6 


4.4 
.6 

4S-0 
37.8 

5-9 
4-5 

14.1 

7.2 

8.9 

92.7 
3-5 

3-7 
1.8 

3-7 
1.4 

17.9 
lo.s 


Per 
cent 


21.9 
13.0 


17.0 
8.6 


27.9 
3.8 

6.2 
5-2 

10.7 


5-7 
2.9 

3.6 

■4 
6.3 

15-6 
7-5 

iS-4 
5-8 

2.9 
1-7 


Per 

cent 


57-4 
34-0 


66.8 
33-7 


61.2 
8.3 

5-4 
4-5 

7.0 
5-3 

S0.6 
25-9 

31-7 

i-S 
57-4 

65-3 
313 

67.4 
2S-S 

.2 
.1 


Bi   £   « 

2  Q  2 


la 


Sqs 


Per 
cent 


13.2 
7.8 


7.0 
3-5 


3-5 
•S 

42.1 
35-4 

74.2 
56.4 

27.9 
14-3 

I7-S 

4.6 
3I-S 

13.0 
6.2 

11.4 
4-3 

77-5 
45-2 


Per 
cent 


1.8 


2.7 


Per 
cent 


3-5 
2.1 


3-9 
2.0 


2.9 
•4 


1-3 
I.I 


2.2 
1-7 


1-7 
.9 


.8 
1.3 

*.4 
I.I 

2.1 
.8 

i-S 
•9 


340 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  43.    Average 

Composition  01 

Fruits  and  Nuts  —  Continued 

Description 

1 

in 

1  - 

K  £  W 

fa 

si" 

lag 

1 

H 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Co/. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

NUTS 

Peanuts : 

Edible  portion      .     . 

4 

— 

9.2 

25.8 

38.6 

24.4 

2-5 

2.0 

2490 

As  purchased    .     .     . 

— 

24-5 

6.9 

I9-S 

29.1 

18.S 



I-S 

1858 

Peanut  butter,  as  pur- 

chased     .... 

2 

— 

2.1 

29-3 

46.5 

17.I 

5.0 

2741 

Pecans,  unpolished : 

Edible  portion      .     . 

I 

— 

2.7 

9.6 

70.5 

iS-3 



1.9 

3330 

As  purchased         .     . 

I 

46.3 

i-S 

S-i 

37-9 

8.2 



I.O 

1788 

Pine  nuts : 

Pignolias,  edible  por- 

tion       

I 

— 

6.4 

33-9 

49.4 

6.9 

3-4 

2757 

Piniones  {Pinus  mo- 

nophylla) : 

Edible  portion 

I 

— 

3.8 

6.5 

60.7 

26.2 

2.8 

3060 

As  purchased     .     . 

I 

41.7 

2.2 

3-8 

35-4 

iS-3 

1.6 

1792 

Pinon  (Pinus  edulis)  : 

Edible  portion 

I 

— 

3-4 

14.6 

61.9 

17-3 

2.8 

310S 

As  purchased     .     . 

I 

40.6 

2.0 

8.7 

36.8 

10.2 

1-7 

1905 

Sabine  pine  nut  {Pi- 

nus sabiniana)  : 

Edible  portion 

I 

— 

S-i 

28.1 

53-7 

8.4 



4.7 

2855 

As  purchased     .     . 

I 

77.0 

1.2 

6.5 

12.3 

1.9 

I.I 

655 

Pistachios : 

■  First  quality,  shelled, 

edible  portion    .     . 

I 

— 

4.2 

22.3 

S4-0 

16.3 

3-2 

2905 

Second  quality. 

shelled,  edible  por- 

tion     .     .     .     .     . 

I 

— 

4-3 

22.8 

S4-9 

14.9 

3.0 

2928 

Walnuts,  California : 

^  _  Edible  portion       .     . 

I 

--^ 

2:,5 

18.4 

64.4 

13.0 

1.4 

1-7 

3200 

-    As  purchased   .     .     . 

I 

73-1 

v7 

4.9 

17-3 

3.5 

•5 

859 

VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


341 


Table  43.     Average  Composition  of  Fruits  and  Nuts  —  Continued 


Description 

OS 

Id 

a 

as 
u 

H 

< 

2 

id 
H 

5 

In 

;z;  a  Id 

^  Id  ■< 

< 

if 
is 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Pfr 

Per 

Cai. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cefri 

cent 

NUTS 

Walnuts,  California, 

black  : 

Edible  portion       .     . 

2 

— 

2-5 

27.6 

56.3 

11.7 

^•7 

1.9 

3012 

As  purchased    .     .     . 

— - 

74.1 

.6 

7.2 

14.6 

3-0 

•5 

781 

Walnuts,  California, 

soft  shell : 

Edible  portion       .     . 

4 

— 

2-5 

16.6 

63-4 

16.1 

2.<J 

1.4 

3182 

As  purchased   .     .     . 

— 

58.1 

I.O 

6.9 

26.6 

6.8 

.6 

133s 

Chemical  changes  in  the  ripening  of  fruits.  During  ripening 
many  fruits  undergo  distinct  changes  in  composition,  and  these 
changes  may  continue  after  the  gathering  of  the  fruit.  In 
general  the  ripening  involves  a  decrease  in  acid  and  starch  with 
an  increase  in  sugar  content.  Oxidation  processes  also  go  on 
in  the  fruit  with  the  development  of  "  ethereal  "  substances 
(probably  esters)  and  evolution  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Quite  elaborate  investigations  of  the  changes  which  fruits 
undergo  during  ripening  have  been  carried  on  by  Bigelow  and 
by  Langworthy  and  their  associates,  in  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  With  winter  apples,  for  example, 
it  was  found  that  the  starch  content  reaches  its  maximum  about 
midsummer  and  then  decreases  and  finally  disappears  almost 
entirely.  This  change  is  strikingly  shown  by  treating  the  cut 
surface  of  specimen  apples  with  iodine,  which  colors  starch  deep 
blue.     The  decreasing  depth  of  color  with  decreasing  starch 


342 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


VEGETABLES,    FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  343 

content  as  the  apple  approaches  maturity  is  readily  seen  in 
Fig.  26.  The  acid  content  of  the  apples  was  found  to  decrease 
from  early  summer  until  maturity,  while  the  sugar  content 
increases. 

In  bananas  also  .there  is  a  marked  conversion  of  starch  into 
sugar  as  the  fruit  ripens. 

The  peach,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  no  appreciable  amount 
of  starch  at  any  time,  but  shows  a  steady  increase  in  sugar  content 
as  it  approaches  maturity. 

In  fruits  generally  there  is  an  apparent  decrease  of  the  pectin 
substances  as  the  fruit  ripens,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  under- 
ripe fruit  yields  firmer  jelly. 

Digestibility  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Fruits  and  Nuts 

In  dietary  studies  and  digestion  experiments  fruits  and  nuts 
are  often  considered  together,  largely  because  a  large  proportion 
of  the  accurately  recorded  data  has  been  gathered  by  Jaffe 
in  connection  with  his  investigations  upon  California  fruitarians 
whose  diet  is  one  of  fruits  and  nuts.  In  28  digestion  experi- 
ments with  2  men  and  i  woman  upon  fruit  and  nut  diet  the 
average  coefficients  of  digestibility  were :  for  protein,  90  per 
cent ;  for  fat,  85  per  cent ;  for  carbohydrate,  95  per  cent. 

Apparently  the  fruit  and  nut  diet  was  as  readily  and  almost 
as  completely  digested  as  would  be  expected  of  ordinary  mixed 
diet. 

The  fact  that  consistent  fruitarians,  both  adults  and  children, 
maintain  a  well-nourished  condition  on  diets  of  fruits  and  nuts 
which  are  of  moderate  total  food  value  and  low  protein  content 
is  strong  evidence  that  the  nutrients  of  the  fruits  and  nuts  must 
be  well  digested  and  also  efficiently  utilized  in  metabolism. 
This  is  in  harmony  both  with  the  belief  that  man  is  descended 
from  ancestors  whose  chief  food  was  fruit  and  nuts,  and  with 
the  results  of  modern  -investigations  of  the  chemical  structure  of 
the  nut  proteins. 


344 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


The  nut  proteins  have  not  been  analyzed  extensively,  but 
Osborne  and  his  associates  report  the  hydrolysis  of  two  as  follows. 
Excelsin  is  the  principal  protein  of  Brazil  nuts,  and  amandin 
of  almonds. 


Table  44.    Percentages  of  Amino  Acids  from  Nut  Proteins 
(Osborne) 


Glycin   . 
Alanin   .     .     . 
Valin     .     .     . 
Leucin  .     . 
Phenylalanin   . 
Tyrosin 
Prolin    .     .     . 
Oxyprolin   . 
Aspartic  acid  . 
Glutamic  acid . 
Arginin  .     . 
Lysin 

Histidin      .     . 
Tryptophan 
Ammonia    . 
Summation 


Amandin 
(Almonds) 


0.51 
1.40 
0.16 
4-4S 
2-53 
1. 12 
2.44 

5-42 
23.14 
11.85 

0.70 

1.58 
present 

3-70 


59.00 


Excelsin 
(Brazil  Nuts) 


0.6 
2-3 
i-S 
8.7 
3-5 
31 
3-6 
? 
3-8 

12.9 

16.1 
1.6 

2-5 

present 
1.8 


62.0 


Further  and  more  conclusive  evidence  of  the  high  food  value 
of  at  least  one  of  the  nut  proteins  is  found  in  the  recent  experi- 
ments of  Osborne  and  Mendel  in  which  rats  are  fed  on  known 
mixtures  of  isolated  food  substances.  Excelsin  of  the  Brazil 
nut  has  been  shown  in  these  experiments  to  be  one  of  the  proteins 
which  is  in  itself  ample  for  all  the  requirements  of  protein 
metabolism  in  normal  nutrition.  Not  only  does  excelsin 
as  a  sole  protein  food  maintain  protein  equilibrium,  but  young 
animals  make  a  normal  growth  and  development  upon  diets 
in  which -excelsin  is  the  only  nitrogenous  food. 

It  is  plain  that  fruits  and  nuts  are  to  be  regarded  as  staple 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  345 

articles  of  food  and  by  no  means  as  simply  relishes  or  accessories. 
By  a  consideration  of  composition  and  cost  it  will  also  be  found 
that  many  of  the  fruits  and  nuts  are  quite  economical  as  com- 
pared with  many  other  staple  foods. 

Place  of  Nuts  in  the  Diet 

From  the  tables  of  composition  given  above  it  is  apparent 
that  nuts  vary  considerably  in  composition,  some  (as  chestnuts) 
being  starchy,  others  (as  coconuts  and  walnuts)  being  especially 
rich  in  fat,  while  many  (as  almonds,  Brazil  nuts,  butternuts,  and 
peanuts)  are  rich  in  both  protein  and  fat. 

Nuts  in  general,  being  rich  in  both  protein  and  fat,  are  com- 
parable with  meats  as  food  and  may  be  used  interchangeably 
with  meat  in  the  diet ;  in  fact  they  are  being  so  used  to  an  in- 
creasing extent.  With  the  constant  tendency  toward  higher 
cost  of  meat,  which  must  be  anticipated  for  reasons  already  ex- 
plained (page  214),  and  with  growing  knowledge  of  nut  culture, 
we  may  look  for  a  much  larger  use  of  nuts  as  "  meat  substitutes ' " 
in  the  future.  Even  at  present  prices  the  economy  of  nuts  both 
as  sources  of  energy  and  of  protein  will  doubtless  be  surprising 
to  many  who  have  not  previously  compared  the  composition 
and  cost  of  typical  articles  of  these  groups. 

Thus  10  cents  spent  for  beefsteak  at  25  cents  per  pound  will 
buy  about  400  Calories  with  about  30  grams  of  protein,  while 
the  same  amount  spent  for  shelled  almonds  at  50  cents  a  pound 
will  buy  about  600  Calories  with  about  25  grams  of  protein; 
if  spent  for  peanuts  at  10  cents  a  pound  it  would  buy  about  i8oo 
Calories  with  90  grams  of  protein ;  or  spent  for  peanut  butter 
at  33  cents  a  pound  (25  cents  for  a  jar  containing  12  ounces  net) 
the  same  amount  would  buy  750  Calories  with  35  grams  of 
protein. 

'  To  speak  of  nuts  as  "  meat  substitute  "  is  natural  under  present  conditions  and 
reflects  the  prominence  which  has  been  given  to  meat  and  the  casual  way  in  which  nuts 
have  been  regarded  for  some  generations.  Looking  at  the  matter  in  evolutionary 
perspective  it  might  be  more  logical  to  speak  of  meats  as  "nut  substitute"  instead. 


346  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Thus  not  only  the  roasted  peanuts  but  the  best  grade  of 
almonds  or  of  carefully  prepared  peanut  butter  is  plainly  a 
much  more  economical  food  than  the  steak,  even  when  the  latter 
is  not  charged  with  the  cost  of  preparing  it  for  the  table. 

The  reader  may  extend  the  comparison  to  other  nuts  at  the 
prices  found  in  the  local  markets. 

The  Place  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  the  Diet 

Fruits  and  vegetables  vary  too  much  in  their  chemical  com- 
position and  other  properties  to  permit  many  broad  generaliza- 
tions in  regard  to  their  place  in  the  diet. 

Potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  bananas  are  easily  comparable 
with  each  other,  but  difficult  to  compare  in  many  respects 
with  celery,  tomatoes,  or  grapefruit. 

Differences  in  food  value  are  due  largely  to  the  wide  variations 
in  water  content,  but  also  to  the  different  quantitative  pro- 
portions which  the  nutrients  bear  to  each  other,  and  in  some 
instances  to  the  presence  of  characteristic  substances. 

Considered  as  sources  of  energy  potatoes  and  dry  beans  and 
peas  are  at  ordinary  prices  about  as  economical  as  grain  prod- 
ucts and  much  more  economical  than  the  meats;  while  the 
dried  fruits  are  comparable  in  economy  as  fuel  with  milk, 
butter,  and  the  fatter  and  cheaper  kinds  of  meat.  Even  those 
fruits  and  green  vegetables  which  are  eaten  for  flavor  with 
little  thought  of  food  value  and  which  are  often  thought  of  as 
luxuries  because  of  their  high  water  content  will  often  be  found 
to  furnish  energy  at  no  greater  cost  than  many  of  the  familiar 
cuts  of  meat  when  account  is  taken  of  the  extent  to  which  the  fat 
of  the  meat  is  usually  rejected  or  lost  in  cooking  or  at  the  table. 

That  the  dry  legumes  are  both  absolutely  and  relatively 
rich  in  protein  is  a  fact  so  well  recognized  as  not  to  require 
elaboration  here.  Less  generally  realized  is  the  fact  that  while 
the  gr^en  vegetables  contain  too  much  water  to  show  high 
absolute  values  or  percentages  by  weight  of  protein,  yet  they 


VEGETABLES,    FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


347 


show  as  much  or  more  of  the  total  food  value  in  the  form  of 
protein  as  is  customary  or  desirable  in  ordinary  dietaries.  In 
fruits,  on  the  other  hand,  the  relative  proportion  as  well  as  the 
absolute  amount  of  protein  is  usually  low.  The  proportion  of 
energy  furnished  by  protein,  as  well  as  numerous  other  data, 
may  be  found  for  all  the  common  articles  of  food  in  the  table 
of  loo-Calorie  portions  at  the  back  of  this  book  (Appendix  E). 

Taking  the  fruits  and  vegetables  as  a  whole,  while  often  more 
economical  as  sources  of  energy  and  protein  than  is  generally 
considered,  yet  they  are  probably  even  more  significant  for 
their  ash  constituents  than  for  the  organic  nutrients  which  they 
contain. 

The  percentages  of  individual  ash  constituents  in  the  edible 
portion  of  each  of  the  important  fruits  and  vegetables  (in  so 
far  as  trustworthy  analyses  are  available)  are  given  in  the 
accompanying  table. 

Table  45.     Ash  CoNSTrruENTS  or  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in   Per- 
centage OF  the  Edible  Portion 


(Compiled  from  various  sources 

) 

Food 

CaO 

MgO 

KjO 

NaK) 

PK). 

CI 

s 

Fe 

Apples     .     .     .     . 

.014 

.014 

•IS 

.02 

•03 

.004 

.COS 

.0003 

Apricots  . 

.018 

018 

.28 

.06 

.06 

.003 

.013 

Asparagus    . 

.04 

02 

.20 

.01 

.09 

.04 

.04 

.0010 

Bananas  . 

.01 

04 

•5° 

.02 

•055 

.20 

.013 

.0006 

Beans,  dried 

.22 

25 

1.40 

.26 

1.14 

•03 

.22 

.0070 

lima,  dried 

.10 

31 

2.1 

■33 

•77 

.025 

.16 

.0070 

lima,  fresh 

.04 

II 

•7 

.12 

.27 

.009 

.06 

.0025 

string  .     . 

•07s 

043 

.28 

•03 

.12 

.018 

.04 

.0016 

Beets  .     .     .* 

•03 

033 

•45 

.10 

.09 

.04 

.015 

.0006 

Blackberries 

.08 

03s 

.20 

.08 

.01 

Blueberries  . 

•04S 

015 

•05 

.02 

Breadfruit    . 

.12 

01 

.28 

.04 

.16 

.10 

Cabbage . 

.068 

026 

•45 

•05 

.09 

•03 

.07 

.0011 

Carrots    .     . 

.077 

034 

•35 

•13 

.10 

.036 

.022 

.0008 

Cauliflower  . 

•17 

02 

.27 

.10 

.14 

•05 

.085 

348 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


Table  45.    Ash  Constituents  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  Per- 
centage OF  the  Edible  Portion  —  Continued 


Food 

CaO 

MgO 

KjO 

NaiO 

P1O5 

CI 

S 

Fe 

Celery     .     .     .     . 

.10 

.04 

•37 

.11 

.10 

•17 

.025 

.0005 

Chard      .     .     .     . 

.22 

.11 

.46 

.12 

.09 

.04 

.12 

Cherries  .     .     .     . 

•03 

.027 

.26 

•03 

.07 

.01 

.01 

.0005 

Cherry  juice      .     . 

.025 

.02 

•IS 

.02 

•03 

.004 

.006 

Chicory   .     .     .     . 

•05 

•03 

.27 

.11 

.09 

.06 

Chives     .     .     .     , 

.20 

•OS 

•33 

.04 

.20 

.04 

Citron      .     .     .     . 

•17 

•03 

•2S 

.02 

.08 

.01 

.02 

Coconut  pulp    . 

.09 

.10 

•77 

.10 

•38 

•25 

•03 

Corn,  sweet,  dried 

•03 

.20 

•5 

.2 

.8 

•OS 

.16 

.0029 

sweet,  fresh  .      . 

.008 

•05s 

•137 

•OS 

.22 

.014 

•044 

.0008 

Cranberries  .     .     . 

.024 

.011 

.09 

•013 

•03 

.005 

.008 

.0006 

Cucumbers   .     .     . 

.022 

.01  s 

•17 

.CIS 

.08 

•03 

.022 

Currants,  fresh .     . 

•OS 

.04 

•2S 

.02 

.10 

.01 

.01 

.COGS 

Zante .... 

.14 

.08 

I.O 

.1 

•3 

.06 

.06 

Currant  juice    . 

•03 

.02 

.2 

•OS 

.005 

Dandelion  greens  . 

.0027 

Dates      .     .     .     . 

.10 

■13 

.12 

•32 

.066 

•003 

Endive    .     .     .     . 

.14 

.02 

•45 

•IS 

.10 

•03 

Figs,  fresh    .     .     . 

.074 

.036 

■365 

.016 

.082 

.014 

.0008 

dried    .     .     .     . 

.299 

■I4S 

1.478 

.064 

•332 

.056 

•Os6 

.0032 

Gooseberries 

•OS 

.02 

.21 

•03 

•6S 

.01 

Grapefruit    .     .     . 

•03 

.02 

•17 

.04 

.01 

.01 

.0004 

Grapes     .     .     .     . 

.024 

.014 

•2S 

•03 

.12 

.CI 

.024 

.0013 

Grape    juice    (and 

must)  .... 

.021 

.016 

.20 

.01 

.04 

.01 

.012 

Guava     .     .     .     . 

.02 

.013 

.46 

.07 

•OS 

Horseradish       .     . 

•13 

.065 

•56 

.08 

.1 

.02 

.18 

Huckleberries    .     . 

•035 

.025 

.07 

.02 

.013 

.0011 

Leeks       .... 

.08 

.02 

.24 

.11 

•IS 

•03 

.08 

Lemons   .... 

•OS 

.01 

.21 

.01 

.02 

.01 

.012 

.0006 

Lemon  juice 

•033 

.01 

•17 

.01 

•02s 

.01 

007 

Lemon,  sweet    . 

.04 

.01 

•53 

.10 

.01 

Lentils    .... 

•IS 

•17 

I. OS 

.08 

1.0 

•OS 

.28 

.0086 

Lettuce   .... 

•OS 

.01 

•4^ 

.04 

.09 

.06 

.014 

.001 

Limes      .... 

.o& 

.02 

.42 

.08 

.04 

•003 

Mamey    .... 

.02 

.02 

.42 

.06 

.14 

Mango  '.     .     .     . 

0-3 

.01 

.28 

.04 

.02 

•013 

Muskmelons      .     . 

.024 

.020 

.283 

.082 

•03s 

.041 

.014 

.0003 

VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


349 


Table  45.     Ash  Constituents  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  Per- 
centage OF  THE  Edible  Portion  —  Continued 


Food 

CaO 

•17 

MgO 

K2O 

NaiO 

PiOs 

CI 

s 

Fe 

Olives       .... 

.01 

1.8 

•17 

•03 

.01 

.025 

.0029 

Onions     .... 

.06 

•03 

•23 

.02 

.12 

.02 

.06 

.0005 

Oranges  .... 

.06 

.02 

.22 

.01 

•05 

.01 

.013 

.0003 

Orange  ju'ce      .     . 

•05 

.02 

.22 

.01 

•03 

.01 

.008 

Paprika   .... 

■32 

.27 

2-5 

.24 

.78 

•15 

.CIS 

Parsnips  .... 

.09 

.07 

.70 

.01 

.19 

•03 

•057 

Peaches   .... 

.01 

.02 

•2S 

.02 

.047 

.01 

.01 

.0003 

Pears 

.021 

.019 

.16 

•03 

.06 

.003 

.012 

.0003 

Peas,  dried  .     .     . 

.14 

.24 

1.06 

.16 

.91 

.04 

•23 

.0056 

fresh    .... 

.04 

.07 

•30 

.04 

.26 

.01 

.06 

.0016 

cowpeas,  dried    . 

.18 

.21 

1. 01 

.40 

1. 00 

.02 

Persimmons . 

•03 

.015 

•35 

.02 

•OS 

.01 

.005 

Pineapple     .     .     . 

.02 

.02 

•38 

.02 

.06 

•OS 

.009 

.0005 

juice    .... 

.02 

•OS 

.007 

Plums      .... 

.025 

.02 

•25 

•03 

•05s 

.01 

.007 

.0005 

Potatoes  .... 

.016 

.036 

•S3 

.025 

.140 

•03 

•03 

.0013 

sweet   .... 

.025 

.02 

•47 

.06 

.09 

.12 

.02 

.0005 

Prunes,  dried 

.06 

.08 

1.2 

.1 

•25 

.01 

•03 

.0029 

Pumpkins     . 

•03 

•ois 

.08 

.08 

.11 

.01 

.02 

Quince  juice 

.18 

•035 

Radishes.     .     . 

•05 

.02 

•17 

.11 

.09 

•05 

•05 

.0006 

Raisins    .... 

.08 

•15 

I.O 

.19 

.29 

■07 

.06 

.005 

Raspberries .     .     . 

.07 

.04 

.21 

.12 

.017 

Raspberry  juice     . 

•03 

•03 

.17 

.01 

•03 

.01 

.009 

Rhubarb  .... 

.06 

.02 

•39 

•03 

.07 

•03  s 

•013 

Rutabagas    . 

.1 

•03 

.48 

.11 

•13 

.06 

.08 

Salsify     .... 

.12 

.04 

Sapota     .... 

.04 

.02 

.22 

.02 

.09 

.01 

Spinach  .... 

.09 

.08 

•94 

.20 

•13 

.02 

.041 

.0032 

Squash    .... 

.02 

.01 

•17 

.002 

•OS 

.02 

.014 

.0008 

Strawberries      .     . 

•05 

•03 

.18 

.07 

.064 

.ox 

.0009 

Tamarinds    .     .     . 

.01 

•03 

•15 

.01 

.01 

Tomatoes     .     .     . 

.020 

.017 

•35 

.01 

•059 

•03 

.02 

.0004 

Tomato  juice     .     . 

.01 

.017 

•35 

.02 

•034 

•OS 

.012 

Turnips  .... 

.089 

.028 

.40 

.08 

.117 

.04 

•07 

.0005 

Turnip  tops 

.48 

•OS 

•37 

.11 

.n 

•17 

.07 

Water  cress 

.26 

•OS 

.07 

Watermelon 

.02 

.02 

.09 

.01 

.02 

.01 

.007 

350  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Comparison  of  one  food  with  another  from  data  given  in  such 
a  table  as  this  may  give  misleading  impressions  unless  it  be 
constantly  kept  in  mind  that  some  of  the  materials  are  quite 
dry  while  others  are  perhaps  nine  tenths  water  and  only  one 
tenth  dry  matter  and  further  that  the  dry  matter  is  of  higher 
food  value  in  some  cases  than  in  others. 

For  this  reason  the  comparison  of  ash  constituents  on  the 
basis  of  the  loo-Calorie  portion  rather  than  of  percentage  by 
weight  may  be  found  more  satisfactory.  The  table  of  loo- 
Calorie  portions  given  at  the  back  of  this  book  shows  the  amount 
of  calcium,  phosphorus,  and  iron.  Taking  from  that  table  the 
weight  in  grams  of  the  loo- Calorie  portion  of  any  food  material, 
the  weight  of  any  other  ash  constituent  may  readily  be  calcu- 
lated from  the  percentage  as  shown  in  the  table  here  given. ^ 

As  sources  of  iron  the  green  vegetables  are  perhaps  the  most 
important  of  all  our  foods,  while  other  vegetables  and  many 
fruits  are  also  very  important  sources  of  food-iron.  This  subject 
can  be  but  briefly  mentioned  here  as  it  has  been  quite  fully 
discussed  elsewhere.^ 

Since  there  has  been  among  dietitians  of  the  older  school  a 
tendency  to  regard  meats  as  the  main  source  of  food-iron,  a 
brief  comparison  of  meats  with  vegetables  and  fruits  from  this 
standpoint  may  be  desirable. 

In  the  average  of  15  American  dietary  studies  the  cost  of 
meat  and  fish  was  35  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure  for  food 
and  the  cost  of  vegetables  and  fruits  was  18  per  cent ;  the 
former  furnished  35  per  cent  of  the  total  iron  and  the  latter 
27  per  cent.  Thus  in  proportion  to  cost  the  fruits  and  vegetables 
furnished  much  more  iron  than  the  meats  and  fish. 

The  question,  however,  is  one  of  kind  as  well  as  amount. 
The  iron  in  meat  is  chiefly  due  to  the  blood  remaining  in  the 

'  A  table'showing  full  ash  analyses  calculated  to  the  loo-Calorie  portion  is  given 
in  the  Appendix  to  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition. 
*  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition,  Chapter  IX. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  351 

small  blood  vessels  with  which  the  meat  is  permeated.  The 
iron  compounds  of  blood  do  not  yield  readily  to  the  digestive 
ferments  as  do  those  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  so  that  the  iron 
of  the  latter  is  better  absorbed  and  becomes  more  completely 
available  for  nutrition  than  the  iron  of  the  meats. 

Moreover  the  use  of  too  much  meat  (especially  by  persons 
of  sedentary  habits  or  indoor  occupation)  tends  toward  ex- 
cessive intestinal  putrefaction  with  resulting  absorption  of 
putrefactive  products  which  are  detrimental  to  the  red  blood 
cells  and  probably  in  other  ways  interfere  with  the  economy  of 
iron  in  the  body.  Fruits,  and  vegetables,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
the  opposite  property  and  their  use  in  liberal  quantities  tends  to 
prevent  or  correct  intestinal  putrefaction,  both  by  stimulating 
peristalsis  and  by  furnishing  a  medium  less  favorable  to  the 
activities  of  the  putrefactive  bacteria.  Herter  showed  that  in 
a  large  proportion  of  anaemic  people  the  anaemia  is  closely  corre- 
lated with  excessive  intestinal  putrefaction  and  that  improved 
condition  of  the  blood  followed  quickly  upon  the  establishment 
of  a  better  intestinal  hygiene.  Interesting  in  this  connection 
is  Herter's  observation  that  anaemia  is  much  more  common 
among  the  carnivorous  than  among  the  herbivorous  animals, 
and  that  the  feces  of  carnivora  are  much  more  likely  to  show 
putrefactive  bacteria  of  the  actively  injurious  types  such  as  B. 
welchii  (B.  aero  genes  capsulatus) . 

The  mild  laxative  tendency  of  many  fruits  and  vegetables 
depends  in  part  upon  the  fact  that  they  furnish  to  the  digestive 
tract  a  sufficiently  bulky  residue  (largely  of  cellulose  and  related 
substances)  to  stimulate  mechanically  and  render  effective  the 
peristaltic  action,  and  in  part  upon  the  occurrence  in  many  fruits 
and  some  vegetables  of  substances  which,  aside  from  the  mechani- 
cal considerations,  exert  a  mild  laxative  effect.  Sometimes  the 
raw  fruit  is  found  to  be  more  laxative  than  the  same  fruit  when 
thoroughly  cooked.  In  some  cases  the  astringent  substances  in 
the  skin  may  counteract  the  laxative  effect  of  the  raw  flesh  of  the 


352  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

fruit ;  thus  some  persons  find  the  flesh  of  raw  (or  even  stewed) 
apples  too  laxative,  but  experience  no  inconvenience  when  the 
skin  of  the  apple  is  eaten  with  the  flesh  and  the  whole  is  thoroughly 
chewed. 

Another  important  effect  of  eating  fruit  is  the  introduction 
of  an  acid  substance  into  the  digestive  tract  which  later  yields 
an  alkaline  or  basic  substance  in  the  blood  and  tissues.  This 
acidity  of  fruits  is  largely  due,  not  to  free  acids,  but  to  acid  potas- 
sium salts,  of  which  the  acid  potassium  tartrate  (cream  of  tartar) 
of  grapes  may  serve  as  an  example. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  the  per- 
centage of  potassium  (expressed  as  K2O  in  the  table)  is  high 
either  absolutely  or  as  compared  with  the  other  ash  constituents 
in  the  same  food.  Like  the  calcium,  magnesium,  and  sodium, 
the  potassium  exists  in  the  foods  in  part  as  neutral  inorganic 
salts.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  exists  to  an  even  larger 
extent  in  combination  with  organic  acids  or  other  organic 
matter.  When  the  food  is  burned,  either  in  the  air  or  in  the  body, 
the  organic  radicles  are  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide  and  water 
and  so  much  of  the  potassium  as  was  combined  with  organic 
matter  remains  as  a  carbonate.  The  presence  of  potassium 
carbonate  (potash)  in  wood  ashes  is  familiar  to  every  one  and 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  wood  ashes  are  alkaline  or  basic. 
Similarly  those  parts  of  plants  which  are  used  for  food  in  the 
form  of  fruits  and  vegetables  yield,  on  burning,  a  basic  or  alkaline 
ash  due  to  the  fact  that  the  base-forming  elements  predominate 
over -the  acid-forming  elements  in  these  foods,  chiefly  because 
of  the  presence  of  the  organic  potassium  compounds  just  men- 
tioned. The  surplus  of  base-forming  elements  which  remains 
as  carbonate  and  makes  the  ash  distinctly  alkaline  when  the 
food  is  burned  at  a  high  temperature  in  the  air  will,  when  the 
material  ^is  oxidized  in  the  body,  remain  as  bicarbonate,  which 
is  a  practically  neutral  substance,  yet  capable  of  neutralizing 
acids   such   as   the   sulphuric   acid   produced   in   the  protein 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


353 


metabolism.  Thus  the  predominance  of  base-forming  elements 
among  the  ash  constituents  of  fruits  and  vegetables  is  of 
great  value  to  the  body  in  facilitating  the  maintenance  of  the 
normal  neutrality  of  the  blood  and  tissues. 

To  obtain  a  quantitative  expression  of  the  extent  to  which 
either  the  acid-forming  or  the  base-forming  elements  predomi- 
nate, calculate  from  the  amounts  of  acid-forming  elements  the 
volume  of  normal  acid  which  these  elements  could  yield,  and 
similarly  the  volume  of  normal  alkali  from  the  base-forming 
elements.  The  excess  of  acid  or  alkali,  as  the  case  may  be, 
expressed  in  cubic  centimeters  of  normal  solution,  affords  a  con- 
venient expression  of  the  acid-forming  or  base-forming  tendency 
of  the  food,  or  as  sometimes  called  its  "  potential  acidity  "  or 
"  potential  alkalinity." 

Table  46  shows  the  potential  alkalinity  or  predominance  of 
base-forming  elements  —  expressed  in  the  units  already  explained 
—  (i)  in  each  100  grams  of  edible  portion  of  the  fruit  or  vegetable, 
(2)  in  the  loo-Calorie  portion,  (3)  in  one  pound  of  the  material 
as  purchased. 

Table  46.    "  Potential  Alkalinity  "  or  "  Excess  of  Base-formikg 
Elements"  in  Various  Fruits  and  Vegetables 


Food  Material 


Apples      .      . 

Apricots  . 
Asparagus 
Bananas  . 
Beans,  dried 

lima,  dried 
fresh 

string,  fresh 
Beet,  fresh    . 
Cabbage  . 
Carrots    .     . 
Cauliflower   . 
Celery      .     . 

2  A 


Per  100  gm. 
Edible  Portion 

Per  100  Cal. 

Per  Pound  as 
Purchased 

3-7 

6. 

12.8 

6.8 

10.9 

26.9 

.8 

.        3-6 

3-6 

5-6 

5-6 

16.2 

18. 

S- 

78.3 

41.6 

12. 

190.3 

14. 

11.6 

29. 

S-4 

12.9 

22.7 

10.9 

23.6 

39-4 

6. 

18. 

21.8 

10.8 

239 

37-8 

s-i 

17s 

243 

7.8 

42.1 

28.6 

354 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Table  46.     "  Potential  Alkalinity  "  or  "  Excess   or  Base-forming 
Elements"  in  Various  Fruits  and  Vegetables  —  Continued 


Food  Material 


I    100  GM. 

LE  Portion 

Per  100  Cal. 

iS-8 

41. 1 

4.4 

9.8 

3- 

1.8 

3-8 

7-9 

45-5 

II.O 

3-2 

2.7 

2.8 

3-9 

4-' 

S-S 

12.3 

4.1 

10.7 

7-4 

38.7 

4- 

9- 

7-5 

18.8 

47.2 

18.9 

1-5 

3-1 

5-6 

10.9 

4-S 

14-3 

11.9 

18.1 

1-3 

1-3 

5- 

1.4 

5- 

12.2 

3.6 

5-6 

6.8 

iS-7 

6.2 

7-3 

7- 

8.6 

6.7 

5-4 

25- 

8. 

i-S 

5-7 

2-9 

9.8 

23-7 

6.9 

4.9 

8.6 

37-4 

8.5 

29.8 

27. 

113- 

6.2 

S-6 

24-5 

2.7 

6.8 

2.7 

^ 

Per  Pound  as 
Purchased 


Chard      .     .     . 
Cherry  juice 
Citron      .     . 
Cranberries  . 
Cucumbers,  fresh 
Dates       .     .     . 
Grapes 

Grape  juice  .     . 
Lemons    .     .     . 
Lemon  juice 
Lettuce    .     . 
Mushrooms  . 
Muskmelons 
Olives      .     .     . 
Onions     .     .     . 
Oranges    .     .     . 
Orange  juice 
Parsnips  .     .     . 
Peas,  fresh    . 

dried    .     .     . 
Peaches,  fresh    . 
Pears,  fresh  .     . 
Pineapple,  fresh 
Plums      .     . 
Potatoes  . 
Potatoes,  sweet 
Prunes,  dried     . 
Pumpkins      .     . 
Radishes  . 
Raisins    .     .     . 
Raspberry  juice 
Rhubarb  . 
Rutabagas     .     . 
Spinach    . 
Tomato  juice     . 
Tomatoes      .     . 
Turnips',.     .     . 
Watermelon 


69.7 

44.6 

8.6 
30-9 
45-3 

9.2 
18.1 
27.4 
19.0 
27.9 

1.8 

16.6 

188. 1 

6.2 
18.4 
28. 
42.7 

2>-7> 
22.6 

15-6 
143 
30.8 
26.5 
26. 
24.1 
92.8 
3-4 
8.9 
97- 

23.6 

122. 
28.1 
25-5 

25- 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  355 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  eating 
of  vegetables  and  fruits  will  diminish  the  acidity  of  the  urine. 
This  has  been  tested  by  Blatherwick,  who  finds  in  all  of  his  ex- 
periments with  vegetables  and  most  of  those  with  fruits  that 
the  urinary  acidity  is  diminished  as  expected,  showing  that  the 
potential  alkalinity  had  actually  been  utilized  in  the  neutraliza- 
tion of  acid  in  the  body ;  but  with  some  fruits  there  may  be  an 
incomplete  oxidation  of  the  fruit-acid  in  the  system  and  so 
the  potential  alkalinity  may  not  be  fully  realized. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  an  excess  of  base-forming 
elements  in  the  food  is  not  in  any  sense  objectionable,  since  the 
oxidation  processes  in  the  body  are  constantly  yielding  such 
large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  that  any  surplus  of  base- 
forming  elements  goes  to  form  bicarbonates,  which  do  not  disturb 
the  neutrality,  but  rather  act  as  a  reserve  material  for  its  main- 
tenance. 

The  balance  of  acids  and  bases  per  100- Calorie  portion  of  all 
the  common  articles  of  food  is  shown  in  the  table  at  the  back 
of  this  book.  In  planning  dietaries  by  the  convenient  method 
of  building  them  up  from  loo-Calorie  portions  it  will  be  easy  with 
the  data  there  given  to  find  the  "  balance  of  acids  and  bases  " 
for  the  dietary  as  a  whole.  In  the  writer's  opinion  it  is  dis- 
tinctly preferable  that  the  balance  fall  on  the  basic  side.  If  an 
excess  of  acid-forming  elements  be  permitted,  it  would  seem 
that  the  excess  should  not  exceed  25  units  (the  equivalent  of 
25  cc.  of  normal  acid)  per  man  per,  day,  which  is  about  the 
quantity  neutralizable  by  the  amount  of  ammonia  to  be  ex- 
pected in  a  day's  urine  under  favorable  conditions. 

Since  meats  and  eggs  show  a  distinct  excess  of  the  acid-form- 
ing elements,  while  in  vegetables  and  fruits  the  base-forming 
elements  predominate,  it  follows  that  the  greater  the  amount  of 
meat,  fish,  and  eggs  eaten  the  more  important  is  it  that  fruits 
and  vegetables  be  also  used  liberally.  A  loo-Calorie  portion  of 
potato  furnishes  just  about  the  amount  of  base  to  neutralize 


3S6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  acid  arising  from  the  metabolism  of  a  loo-Calorie  portion 
of  steak.  To  serve  a  200-Calorie  portion  of  steak  with  only 
a  loo-Calorie  portion  of  potato  is  out  of  proportion.  The  grain 
products  have  an  excess  of  acid-forming  elements,  not  large 
enough  to  be  objectionable  when  the  diet  is  otherwise  well 
balanced,  but  which  may  result  in  the  diet  as  a  whole  becoming 
too  strongly  acid-forming  if  grain  products  are  allowed  to  take 
the  place  of  vegetables.  Rice  and  potatoes  are  sometimes  con- 
sidered interchangeable,  but  from  this  standpoint  cannot  be  so 
considered.  When  rice  instead  of  potato  is  served  with  meat, 
not  only  is  the  excess  acid  from  the  meat  left  unprovided  for,  but 
more  acid  is  added  by  the  rice.  Hence,  even  though  the  rice 
furnishes  as  much  energy  and  protein,  it  cannot  properly  be 
regarded  as  of  fully  equal  food  value  with  the  potato  which  it 
displaces. 

In  order  to  avoid  too  great  an  excess  of  acid  in  cases  in  which 
no  dietary  calculations  are  made,  it  is  well  to  allow  at  least  as 
much  money  for  the  purchase  of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  milk  (in 
which  base-forming  elements  predominate)  as  for  the  purchase 
of  meats,  fish,  and  eggs  (all  of  which  are  distinctly  acid-forming). 

While  not  yet  fully  understood,  the  vitamine  content  seems 
likely  to  prove  a  factor  of  some  importance  in  the  role  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  in  the  diet.  The  "  antiscorbutic  property  " 
of  these  foods  is  well  recognized.  The  evidence  has  seemed  to 
favor  the  view  that  this  property  is  chiefly  due  to  the  predomi- 
nance of  base-forming  ash  constituents,^  but  recent  work  indi- 
cates that  vitamines  must  also  be  taken  into  account  in  this 
connection. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  fruits  and  vegetables  as  food  can- 
not be  expressed  in  quantitative  terms,  but  even  the  factors 
which  can  be  so  expressed  show  that  these  foods,  even  when 
bought,^  as  is  usual,  with  reference  to  flavor  rather  than  food 
value,  are  more  economical  than  is  generally  supposed. 

'  Compare  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition,  pp.  293-2g4. 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS 


357 


Thus  the  data  of  15  American  dietary  studies  supposed  to  be 
representative  of  ordinary  food  habits  in  their  respective  locaUties 
show  the  following  average  results  when  the  cost  of,  and  returns 
from,  the  fruits  and  vegetables,  the  vegetables  alone,  and  the 
potatoes  alone,  are  calculated  in  percentage  of  the  total  food 
(Table  47). 

Table  47.  Economy  of  Fruits  ano  Vegetables  in  the  Diet 


In  Fifteen  Aiterican 
Dietaries 


Fruits  and  Vegetables 
Vegetables  .... 
Potatoes      .... 


Per  Cent 

OF  Total 

Cost 


18.7 

II. I 

3-9 


Per  Cent 
OF  Total 
Calories 


11.8 
9.0 

5-3 


Per  Cent 
OF  Total 
Protein 


10.6 
9.8 

4.2 


Per  Cent 
OF  Total 
Phosfhorus 


18.7 
18.0 

8.7 


Per  Cent 

of  Total 

Iron 


27-3 
20.6 

13-5 


If  we  take  account  of  the  fact  that  we  must  purchase  phos- 
phorus and  iron  compounds  as  well  as  protein  and  energy  in 
the  food,  we  see  that  the  money  spent  for  fruits  and  vegetables 
yielded  its  proportionate  return  in  nutritive  value  if  not  in 
Calories  and  protein.  Potatoes,  it  will  be  seen,  were  very  econom- 
ical sources  of  protein  and  energy  as  well  as  of  ash  constituents. 

In  any  case  the  percentages  of  nutrients  give  an  inadequate 
expression  of  the  true  value  of  fruits  and  vegetables  as  food. 
In  fact  the  low  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate  content  which 
causes  some  of  the  fruits  and  green  vegetables  to  be  regarded 
merely  as  luxuries  may  at  times  be  an  actual  advantage  in  ena- 
bling one  to  balance  a  dietary  by  adding  these  foods  without 
either  making  protein  or  energy  intake  excessive  or  necessitating 
a  restriction  of  the  consumption  of  foods  already  in  use. 

Unquestionably  the  more  general  and  more  liberal  use  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  is  to  be  encouraged.  Where  the  cost  of 
food  must  be  strictly  limited,  the  dietary  may  often  be  improved 
by  diminishing  the  expenditures  for  meats  and  sweets  in  ordei 
that  vegetables  and  fruits  may  be  used  more  freely. 


358  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

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Gore.  Unfermented  Apple  Juice.  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  118  (1908). 

Composition  of  Fruit  Juices  during  1907.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der 
Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  15,  pages  129-160  (1908). 

Powell.  The  Decay  of  Oranges  while  in  Transit  from  California.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin 
123  (1908). 

Barker  and  Russell.  Composition  of  Cider.  Analyst,  Vol.  34,  pages  1 25- 
134  (1909). 

Beythien.  Standards  for  Marmalades,  Fruit  Juices,  and  other  Fruit  Pre- 
serves ;  Report  of  Conference  of  German  Food  Chemists  and  Represent- 
atives of  Manufacturers.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs- 
und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  18,  pages  54-78  (1909). 

Hartel  and  MUller.  Analyses  of  English  Marmalades.  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  17,  pages  667- 
669  (1909). 

Fruit  Juices  and  Berries  in  1 908.  Zeitschrift  fur  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs- 
und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  16,  pages  733-745  (1909). 

Gore.  Composition  of  the  Scuppernong,  Concord,  and  Catawba  Grape 
Juices.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  i,  pages 
436-441  (1909). 

Alwood.  Enological  Studies  (Cider  and  Wine  Making).  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  129  (1909- 
1910). 

GoLDTHWAiTE.  Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Jelly-making.  Journal  of  In- 
dustrial and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  i,  pages  333-340;  Vol.  2, 
pages  457-462 (1909-1910). 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,  AND   NUTS  363 

Alwood.  The  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Grapes  Grown  in  Ohio, 
New  York,  and  Virginia.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  145  (1910). 

Olig.  Report  on  Fruits  for  the  Year  1909.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung 
der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  19,  pages  558-569  (1910). 

Powell.  Cooperation  in  the  Handling  and  Marketing  of  Fruit.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  391-406. 

Stubenrauch  and  Dennis.  The  Precooling  of  Fruit.  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1910,  pages  437-448. 

Halcom.  Composition  and  Analysis  of  Vinegar.  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  132,  pages  92-97, 
and  Bulletin  137,  pages  57-61  (1910-1911). 

Barker.  Principles  and  Practise  of  Cider-Making.  Journal  of  the  In- 
stitute of  Brewing,  Vol.  17^  pages  425-441  (191 1). 

BiOLETTi.  Principles  of  Wine-Making.  California  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  213  (1911). 

Bradley.  Composition  of  the  Apple  as  Affected  by  Irrigation.  Journal  of 
Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  496-497  (191 1). 

Cox.  The  Weather  Bureau  and  the  Cranberry  Industry.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  1911,  pages  211-222. 

Gore.  Processing  Persimmons  to  Render  them  Non-astringent.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  141 
(1911). 

Gore.  Studies  in  Fruit  Respiration.  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  142  (1911). 

Hartel  and  Solling.  Composition  of  Marmalades.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Unter- 
suchung der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  21,  pages  168-196 
(1911). 

Jamieson.  Composition  of  Avocado  Pear.  Chemical  News,  Vol.  102, 
page  61  (1911). 

Kelley.  Composition  of  Hawaiian  Pineapples.  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  403-405  (191 1). 

Langworthy  and  Milner.  A  New  Respiration  Calorimeter  for  Use  in  the 
Study  of  Problems  of  Vegetable  Physiology  (Fruit  Ripening).  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  191 1,  pages  491-504. 

MoTT.  Cider  Vinegar.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 
Vol.  3,  pages  747-750  (1911)- 

Reich.  Ripe  and  Unripe  Bananas.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der 
Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  22,  pages  208-226  (1911). 

Vinson.  The  Chemistry  and  Ripening  of  the  Date.  Arizona  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  66,  pages  403-435  (1911). 


364  FCX)D   PRODUCTS 

Yashimura.     Composition    and    Ripening    of    Bananas.     Zeitschrift    fUr 

Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  21,  pages  406-411 

(1911). 
Bailey.     Biochemical  and  Bacteriological  Studies  on  the  Banana.     Journal 

of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  34,  pages  1 706-1 730  (191 2). 
Behre  and  Freiuchs.     Fruit  Juice  Statistics  for  191 1.     Zeitschrift  ftir 

Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  22,  pages  733- 

736  (1912). 
BiOLETTi.     Sulphurous  Acid  in  Wine-Making.     Original  Communications, 

Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  14,  pages 

31-59  (1912). 
Bitting.     The  Canning  of  Foods.     United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  151  (191 2). 
BoocH.     Action  of  Apple  Cider  on  Peristalsis.     Inaugural  Dissertation, 

Giessen,  191 2. 
Gore.     Large  Scale  Experiments  on  the  Processing  of  Japanese  Persimmons 

with  Notes  on  the  Preparation  of  Dried  Persimmons.     United  States 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  155  (191 2). 
Lloyd.     Artificial  Ripening  of  Japanese  Persimmons.     Proceedings  of  the 

Alabama  Horticultural  Society,  Vol.  9,  pages  57-63 ;  Chemical  Abstracts, 

Vol.  6,  pages  878,  2472  (191 2). 
McGiLL.     Marmalades.     Canada  Inland  Revenue  Laboratory  (Ottawa), 

Bulletin  233  (191 2). 
Rossi.     Viticultural  Industry  of   California  and  the  Manufacture  of  its 

Wines.     Original  Communications,  Eighth  International  Congress  of 

Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  14,  pages  137-143  (191 2). 
Schneider.     A  Nutrition  Investigation  on  the  Insoluble  Carbohydrates  or 

Marc  of  the  Apple.     American  Journal  of  Physiology,  Vol.  30,  pages 

258-270  (1912). 
Sherwin  and  May.     Composition  and  Sugar  Content  of  Water  Melons. 

Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages  585- 

588  (1912). 
Thompson  and  Whittier.     Forms  of  Sugar  found  in  Common  Fruits. 

Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Horticultural  Science,  Vol.  9,  pages  16-22 

(1912). 
WiLLCOx  and  Kelley.     Pineapples.     Hawaiian  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  Bulletin  28  (191 2). 
CoLLisov.     Sugar  and  Acid  in  Oranges  and  Grapefruit.     Florida  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  115  (1913). 
Funk.    The  Nitrogenous  Constituents  of  Lime  Juice.     Biochemical  Journal, 

Vol.  7,  pages  81-86  (1913). 


VEGETABLES,   FRUITS,   AND   NUTS  365 

Kakizawa.  Digestion  Experiment  with  Banana  Flour.  Archiv  fiir 
Hygiene,  Vol.  80,  pages  302-309  (1913). 

Langworthy  and  Milner.  Some  Results  Obtained  in  Studying  Ripening 
Bananas  with  the  Respiration  Calorimeter.  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  191 2,  pages  293-308. 

Langworthy.  Raisins,  Figs  and  Other  Dried  Fruits  and  their  Use.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  for  19 12,  pages  505-522; 
reprinted  as  Yearbook  Separate,  610  (1913). 

Pratt  and  Rosario.  Philippine  Fruits ;  Composition  and  Characteristics. 
Philippine  Journal  of  Science,  Series  A,  Vol.  8,  pages  59-80  (1913). 

Scott.  Fruit  Addition  to  the  Diet  of  the  Growing  Child.  American 
Medicine,  Vol.  19,  pages  416-425  (1913). 

TiLLMANNS  and  Splittgerber.  Fruit  Juices ;  Occurrence  of  Nitrates  in 
and  Data  for  1911-1912.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrvmgs- 
und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  25,  pages  417-429  (1913). 

Alwood.  Crystallization  of  Cream  of  Tartar  in  the  Juice  of  Graf>es. 
Journal  of  Agricultural  Research,  Vol.  i,  pages  513-514  (1914). 

Thompson  and  Whittier.  Fruit  Juices.  Delaware  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,   Bulletin  102  (1914). 

Cruess  and  Hintze.  Manufacture  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice  in  Cali- 
fornia. Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  6,  pages 
302-304(1914)- 


CHAPTER  X 

EDIBLE   FATS   AND    OILS 

Edible  fats  and  oils  are  separated  on  a  commercial  scale  from 
a  great  variety  of  food  materials :  butter  from  milk ;  oleo- 
margarine, lard,  and  suet  from  meat  fats ;  corn  oil  from  grain ; 
olive  oil  from  a  fruit ;  peanut  (arachis)  oil  from  a  legume  seed 
of  nut-like  character;  coconut  oil  from  a  true  nut;  cottonseed 
oil  from  the  seeds  of  a  plant  of  still  a  different  family.  Of  the 
various  food  fats  of  commerce,  butter  is,  in  America  at  least,  by 
far  the  most  prominent,  and  the  butter  industry  will  therefore 
be  treated  more  fully  than  the  other  fat  and  oil  industries. 

Butter 

The  butter  reported  made  in  the  United  States  in  the  census 
year  1909  amounted  to  994,650,610  pounds  valued  at  $222,- 
861,440  made  on  farms,  and  627,145,865  pounds  valued  at 
$180,174,790  made  in  factories,  or  in  all  1,621,796,475  pounds 
of  butter  valued  at  $403,036,230. 

Thus  in  money  value  of  annual  product,  the  butter  industry 
is  of  similar  size  to  the  market  milk  industry,  the  egg  industry, 
or  the  sugar  industry. 

Since  relatively  small  amounts  of  butter  are  imported  or 
exported,  the  consumption  may  be  taken  as  approximately 
equal  to  the  production,  and  amounts  therefore  to  about  17I  to 
18  pounds  of  butter  per  capita  per  year,  or  three  fourths  to 
four  fiftlis  of  an  ounce  per  person  per  day. 

Butter  making  was,  until  about  fifty  years  ago,  entirely  a 
household  industry.     Since  then  the  industry  of  making  butter 

366 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  367 

in  central,  creameries  or  butter  factories  has  grown  until  at 
present  about  two  fifths  of  the  butter  is  made  in  such  estab- 
lishments, and  the  proportion  is  constantly  increasing.  The 
description  which  follows  relates  chiefly  to  the  making  of 
butter  in  creameries  or  butter  factories. 

It  is  said  that  the  first  creamery  was  built  by  Alanson  Slaughter 
in  Orange  County,  New  York,  in  1861,  and  received  the  milk 
of  about  375  cows.  Less  than  forty  years  later,  in  1900,  a  single 
creamery  at  St.  Albans,  Vermont,  received  the  milk  (or  cream) 
from  more  than  30,000  cows,  from  which  was  made  in  one  room 
between  20,000  and  25,000  pounds  of  butter  per  day. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  creameries  or  butter  factories 
are  owned  by  associations  of  farmers  and  conducted  on  a  co- 
operative plan.  The  farmer  who  sends  milk  to  the  creamery  is 
often  spoken  of  as  a  patron.  When  the  farm  is  at  a  distance 
from  the  creamery,  the  farmer  often  separates  the  cream  and 
sends  it  alone  to  the  creamery.  Payment  either  for  milk  or 
cream  is  usually  based  upon  the  actual  determination  of  fat 
content  (usually  by  means  of  the  Babcock  test). 

In  order  to  simplify  this  part  of  the  work,  it  is  common  to 
weigh  the  milk  in  a  large  cylindrical  can  (which  remains  on 
the  scale)  and  after  weighing  each  delivery  take  a  sample  by 
means  of  a  Scovell  or  McKay  sampling  tube  which  will  accurately 
represent  the  milk  of  the  can  from  top  to  bottom  and  will  be 
proportional  in  quantity  to  the  amount  of  milk  delivered.  This 
sample  is  poured  from  the  tube  into  a  bottle  or  jar  which  contains 
a  preservative  and  the  jar  kept  closed  to  prevent  evaporation. 
One  jar  thus  serves  for  each  patron,  and  the  daily  samples  are 
composited  in  the  jar  for  as  many  days  as  desired  (usually  a 
week,  ten  days,  or  two  weeks),  then  tested,  and  the  percentage 
of  fat  found  in  the  composite  sample  is  multiplied  by  the  total 
weight  of  milk  which  it  represents. 

A  butter  factory  makes  more  pounds  of  butter  than  it  receives 
of  butter-fat  in  the  milk  because  the  losses  of  fat  are  more  than 


368  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

compensated  for  by  the  water,  curd,  and  salt  of  the  butter. 
The  excess  of  butter  made  over  butter-fat  received  is  called  the 
"  over-run." 

The  amount  of  over-run  depends  on :  (i)  the  thoroughness 
of  skimming,  (2)  the  completeness  of  churning,  (3)  the  general 
losses  in  the  factory,  (4)  the  composition  of  the  butter.  It 
is  generally  calculated  in  percentage  of  the  fat  received  and 
may  usually  be  expected  to  average  about  10  per  cent. 

Under  good  conditions  and  management,  the  fat  content 
of  the  Skim-milk  should  not  exceed  o.i  per  cent,  and  in  the 
butter-milk  0.2  per  cent  as  determined  by  the  Babcock 
test. 

Cream  may  be  obtained  from  milk  either  by  gravity  or  by 
centrifugal  force.  The  prevailing  method  at  present  is  by  means 
of  centrifugal  separators  in  which  the  milk  flows  continuously 
into  a  rotating  bowl  containing  thin  metal  plates  which  separate 
the  milk  into  inclined  sheets  in  which  by  centrifugal  force  the 
heavier  part  is  thrown  toward  the  outer  rim  '  and  the  lighter 
fat  globules  are  forced  toward  the  center.  Thus  while  the  sepa- 
rator is  in  operation,  a  continuous  stream  of  cream  and  another 
of  skimmed  milk  is  obtained  from  the  inner  and  outer  layers 
respectively  of  the  rotated  bowl  of  milk.  In  order  that  the 
skimmed  milk  shall  not  be  thrown  out  of  the  machine  with  too 
great  force,  the  tubes  which  receive  it  from  the  outer  portion 
of  the  bowl  are  carried  back  toward  the  center  of  the  bowl,  where 
they  discharge  into  the  outlet  pipe.  The  size  of  the  skim-milk 
outlet  may  be  made  to  bear  any  desired  relation  to  the  size  of 
inlet,  size  of  bowl,  and  speed  of  rotation,  and  thus  any  desired 
proportion  of  the  whole  milk  may  be  drawn  off  as  skimmed  milk 
while  the  remainder  is  forced  to  the  center  of  the  bowl  and  dis- 
charged through  the  cream  outlet.  MacKay  and  Larsen  state 
that  fo/ Gutter-making,  a  cream  containing  from  25  per  cent  up 

•  Suspended  solids  heavier  than  the  skimmed  milk  are  forced  against  the  outer 
surface  and  result  in  a  deposit  of  "separator  slime." 


EDIBLE   FATS  AND   OILS  369 

to  50  per  cent  of  fat  may  be  taken  according  to  the  preference 
of  the  butter-maker. 

Pasteurization  of  milk  or  cream  for  use  in  butter-making  is 
growing  in  favor.  It  eliminates  not  only  any  pathogenic 
bacteria  which  may  be  present,  but  most  other  bacteria  as  well, 
and  makes  it  possible  to  control  the  ripening  of  the  cream  by 
adding  to  the  pasteurized  cream  a  culture  of  bacteria  which  will 
produce  the  type  of  fermentation  desired.  This  enables  the 
trained  butter-maker  to  produce  butter  of  more  uniform  char- 
acter and  better  keeping  quality. 

Ripening  of  cream  is  an  acid  fermentation,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  produce  a  butter  of  desirable  flavor  and  aroma.  Ripened 
cream  also  churns  more  easily  and  completely  than  that  which 
has  not  been  ripened. 

Different  butter-makers  use  temperatures  varying  from  60° 
to  80°  F.  in  ripening  cream,  the  higher  temperatures  being  em- 
ployed when  it  is  desired  to  complete  the  process  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  Ordinarily  it  is  considered  that  a  better  type  of  fer- 
mentation is  secured  at  60°  to  70°  F.  than  at  a  higher  temperature. 
The  desired  temperature  is  maintained  by  keeping  the  cream, 
during  the  ripening  process,  in  a  water-jacketed  vat. 

In  the  ripening-vat  the  cream  is  mixed  with  (usually)  one 
tenth  to  one  fifth  of  its  volume  of  "  starter,"  which  consists 
of  clean  skimmed  milk  in  active  lactic  acid  fermentation  in- 
duced either  by  the  addition  of  commercial  cultures  of  lactic 
acid  bacteria  or  by  keeping  a  good  natural  milk  at  about  70°  F. 
until  it  shows  a  clean  pleasant  acid  odor  and  taste,  and  coagu- 
lates to  a  smooth  uniform  curd.  Before  the  starter  is  added  to 
the  cream,  it  is  strained  or  poured  back  and  forth  between 
sterilized  cans  until  the  curds  which  it  contains  are  broken  into 
very  small  particles ;  otherwise  the  lumps  of  curd  may  appear 
as  whitish  mottles  in  the  finished  butter.  If  necessary,  the  starter 
may  be  strained  before  mixing  with  the  cream.  The  cream  and 
starter  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  together  and  the  stirring 


370  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

should  be  repeated  at  intervals  during  the  ripening  process  in 
order  that  the  acid  fermentation  may  predominate  uniformly 
throughout  and  that  the  fat  globules  may  have  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  absorbing  the  desired  aroma. 

In  general  the  degree  of  acidity  reached  by  the  cream  in  the 
ripening  process  is  an  indication  of  the  degree  of  flavor  that  the 
butter  will  have.  Some  markets  require  a  more  highly  flavored 
butter  than  others.^ 

Churning  consists  in  agitating  cream  in  such  a  way  that  the 
fat  globules  stick  together  into  masses  of  butter  large  enough 
to  be  separated  from  the  buttermilk. 

The  churns  now  in  general  use  in  American  butter  factories, 
and  which  are  being  introduced  into  Europe,  are  the  "combined 
churns  "  which  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  used  not  only 
to  churn  the  cream  and  gather  the  butter,  but  also  to  wash, 
salt,  and  work  the  butter  so  that  all  these  successive  operations 
can  be  carried  out  without  handling  or  exposure  to  flies  and  in 
an  apparatus  which  permits  of  a  controlled  temperature. 

In  transferring  the  cream  from  the  ripening-vat  to  the  chum 
it  is  run  through  a  tin  strainer  to  remove  any  lumps  of  curd 
which  might  otherwise  affect  the  appearance  of  the  butter. 

Butter  color  is  usually  also  added  to  the  cream  before  churn- 
ing. Both  annatto  and  synthetic  colors  are  widely  used. 
Different  markets  require  different  degrees  of  color.  The  com- 
mercial preparations  used  for  coloring  butter  are  employed  in 
quantities  varying  from  none  in  May  and  June  (when  the  natural 
color  of  butter  is  highest)  to  about  2  ounces  per  100  pounds  of  fat 
in  winter  when  the  butter  would  naturally  have  a  much  paler 
color  than  in  early  summer. 

>  Usually  the  ripening  process  is  continued  until  so  cc.  of  the  cream  neutralize 
about  35  cc.  of  tenth  normal  sodium  hydroxide,  using  phenolphthalein  as  indicator. 
This  is  cejled  35  degrees  of  acidity.  The  acidity  is  also  sometimes  expressed  as 
percentage  of  lactic  acid,  and  is  often  measured  by  means  of  alkali  tablets  which 
contain  a  fixed  amount  of  alkali  along  with  enough  phenolphthalein  to  serve  as 
indicator. 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  371 

Churning  is  usually  continued  until  the  fat  has  gathered  into 
irregular,  flaky,  granular  masses  between  the  size  of  a  grain  of 
wheat  and  that  of  a  kernel  of  corn.  The  buttermilk  is  then 
drawn  off  and  the  butter  washed  with  pure  water  usually  at  a 
temperature  about  that  at  which  the  cream  was  churned  or 
a  little  below.  Warmer  or  colder  water  is  sometimes  used  when 
it  is  desired  to  alter  the  texture  of  the  butter. 

Salting  of  butter  has  the  object  (i)  of  imparting  the  desired 
flavor,  (2)  of  increasing  the  keeping  quality,  (3)  of  facilitating 
the  removal  of  the  buttermilk. 

The  amount  of  added  salt  desired  in  butter  by  different 
markets  varies  from  o  to  4  per  cent,  American  markets  tending 
as  a  rule  to  prefer  a  rather  highly  salted  butter. 

When  the  salcing  is  done  without  removing  the  butter  from 
the  churn,  the  amount  of  salt  added  is  calculated  on  the  basis 
of  the  amount  of  fat  known  to  have  been  contained  in  the  cream. 

The  quality  of  the  salt  used  is  regarded  as  quite  important. 
Good  dairy  salt  should  have  a  clean,  white,  silky  appearance 
and  should  dissolve  quickly.  Woll  ^  gives  the  following  as 
the  analysis  of  a  sample  of  purest  American  dairy  salt : 

Per  Cent 

Sodium  chloride      .     .     . 99.18 

Magnesium  chloride 05 

Calcium  sulphate .54 

Calcium  chloride 19 

Insoluble  matter 03 

Moisture .01 

100.00 

All  of  the  salt  contained  in  butter  should  dissolve  in  the  water 
which  the  butter  retains.  Butter  containing  particles  of  un- 
dissolved salt  is  called  "  gritty."  When  the  butter  as  packed 
contains  undissolved  granules  of  salt,  these  attract  moisture 
and  cause  unevenness  of  appearance.     This  is  one  of  the  causes 

'  Bulletin  74,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


372  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

of  mottles  in  butter.  In  order  to  avoid  mottling  of  butter  from 
this  or  other  causes,  the  buttermilk  should  be  washed  out  as 
completely  as  possible  and  the  salt  carefully  applied  and  well 
worked  in.  The  washing  out  of  the  proteins  in  the  buttermilk 
also  results  in  a  butter  of  better  keeping  qualities. 

Working.  The  butter,  having  been  washed  and  salted,  is 
next  worked  to  distribute  the  salt  evenly,  to  bring  the  butter 
into  compact  form,  and  to  press  out  any  excess  of  water  or 
diluted  buttermilk.  The  amount  of  water  left  in  the  finished 
product  is  largely  determined  by  the  amount  it  is  worked,  since 
the  more  it  is  worked  after  it  has  become  firm,  the  lower  the  per- 
centage of  moisture  will  be.  For  most  markets  the  moisture 
must  not  exceed  i6  per  cent. 

Packing.  Extra  quality  butter  is  often  put  up  in  prints  bear- 
ing the  name  of  the  farm  or  creamery  where  made.  As  the 
print  butter  must  be  firm  in  order  to  keep  its  shape  well,  it  is 
apt  to  contain  slightly  less  moisture  than  the  butter  put  up  in 
tubs. 

Butter  is  said  to  keep  best  when  packed  in  earthen  jars,  but 
as  these  are  heavy  and  easily  broken  in  transportation,  they  are 
usually  replaced  by  wooden  tubs  made  of  ash  or  spruce,  which 
must  be  well  seasoned  and  free  from  odor.  Before  use  the  butter 
tubs  are  filled  with  saturated  brine  and  allowed  to  stand  and  soak 
until  the  next  day,  then  washed  and  scalded,  thoroughly  cooled, 
lined  with  paper  which  has  been  soaked  in  brine,  and  filled  at 
once.  This  treatment  should  prevent  molding  of  the  butter  in 
the  tub,  and  it  also  swells  the  wood  and  so  closes  any  small 
cracks  which  it  may  contain.  Sometimes  the  tubs  are  paraffined 
inside  or  treated  by  soaking  in  brine  to  which  has  been  added 
about  three  ounces  of  formalin  to  the  gallon. 

The  butter  is  transferred  from  the  churn  or  working  table  to 
the  tub  by  wooden  ladles  which  just  before  use  are  thoroughly 
scalded  and  then  chilled  in  cold  water.  By  means  of  the  ladles, 
the  butter  should  be  smoothly  and  firmly  packed  into  the  tub 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  373 

SO  as  to  leave  no  air  spaces  either  in  the  butter  or  between  the 
butter  and  the  sides  of  the  tub  or  at  the  top. 

Stored  butter  should  be  kept  at  50°  F.  or  below  in  as  dry  a  place 
as  possible  and  separate  from  any  other  foods  or  anything  from 
which  it  might  absorb  an  odor. 

The  expense  of  making  butter  from  the  whole  milk  was  in- 
vestigated in  Iowa  and  is  reported  to  range  in  the  different 
factories  from  one  and  one  fifth  to  six  cents,  with  an  average 
of  two  and  one  fourth  cents  per  pound  of  butter  produced.  The 
cost  of  ordinary  creamery  butter  depends  therefore  much  more 
largely  upon  the  cost  of  milk  or  cream  than  upon  the  expense  of 
manufacture. 

Judging  butter  is  very  important  in  the  industry  because  the 
price  is  so  largely  dependent  upon  the  grade  given  the  butter  by 
the  butter  judge. 

On  a  scale  of  100  the  weight  given  to  the  different  factors  of 
quality  in  America  is  usually  as  follows : 

Flavor 45 

Body 25 

Color 15 

Salt 10 

Style S 

For  discussion  of  judging,  grading,  and  the  market  classifica- 
tion of  butter,  see  McKay  and  Larsen,  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Butter-making,  Chapter  XX. 

Composition  of  Butter 

McKay  and  Larsen  found  the  average  composition  of  221 
samples  of  butter  from  55  creameries  in  different  parts  of  Iowa 
to  be : 

Per  Cent 

Fat 84 

Moisture 12.73 

Curd 1.30 

Salt  and  ash 1.97 


374  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

The  figures  for  curd  include  any  milk  sugar  which  may  some- 
times be  present.  Under  present  conditions  of  manufacture 
the  curd  is  the  least  variable  constituent.  It  is  very  generally 
kept  below  2  per  cent  because  if  more  than  this  is  present  the 
brine  which  exudes  from  the  butter  is  apt  to  be  noticeably  milky, 
and  such  a  butter  would  not  be  acceptable  to  the  trade.  In 
butter  which  is  to  be  kept  for  some  time  special  care  is  taken  to 
keep  down  the  protein  as  much  as  possible.  Such  butter  will 
probably  contain  only  0.5  to  i  per  cent  of  curd. 

Preparations  for  increasing  the  amount  of  butter  obtainable 
from  a  given  amount  of  cream  have  been  put  on  the  market  from 
time  to  time.  Since  in  the  ordinary  manufacture  very  little 
fat  is  lost  in  the  buttermilk,  it  is  obvious  that  these  butter  in- 
creasers  must  act,  if  at  all,  not  by  a  saving  of  fat,  but  by  induc- 
ing the  formation  of  a  butter  with  a  lower  fat  content. 
Usually  the  result  is  accomplished  by  the  incorporation  of  an 
undue  amount  of  curd  and  water  by  a  sort  of  emulsification  of 
buttermilk  with  the  butter.  Such  a  butter  is  of  course  fraudu- 
lent, and  is  also  of  very  inferior  keeping  quality  on  account  of 
its  high  protein  content.  Such  frauds  can  be  practiced  only 
on  a  small  scale,  as  a  butter  of  this  sort  would  be  quickly  de- 
tected and  rejected  by  those  engaged  in  the  wholesale  butter 
trade. 

The  salt  in  butter  is  both  a  flavoring  and  a  preservative..  A 
comparatively  small  variation  in  the  salt  content  of  butter 
is  recognizable  to  the  taste,  and  different  consumers  prefer  very 
different  amounts  of  salt.  About  2  per  cent  of  salt  is  demanded 
by  most  American  markets.  Some  brands  of  butter  are  made 
extra  salty  with  the  idea  that  the  consumer  having  acquired 
a  taste  for  this  will  find  ordinary  butter  "  flat  "  and  go  will 
continue  to  demand  the  highly  salted  brand.  On  the  other  hand 
some  consumers  demand  unsalted  (so-called  "  sweet  ")  butter, 
and  this  can  usually  be  found  in  the  market. 

When  unsalted  butter  is  stored  its  flavor  deteriorates  and 


EDIBLE  FATS   AND   OILS  375 

oecomes  "  cheesy,"  while  salted  butter  deteriorates  less  rapidly 
and  usually  in  a  different  manner. 

Moisture  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  variable  constituent 
of  butter  aside  from  the  fat.  The  amount  ranges  from  6  to  16 
per  cent,  more  than  16  per  cent  being  forbidden  both  by  legal 
and  trade  regulations  in  many  states  and  in  the  large  markets. 
Butter  which  exudes  large  drops  of  water  is  called  "  leaky  " 
and  is  commonly  supposed  to  contain  excessive  moisture,  but 
this  is  not  necessarily  the  case.  Both  the  moisture  content  and 
the  physical  condition  which  make  the  butter  "  leaky  "  are 
largely  influenced  by  the  conditions  which  obtain  during  churn- 
ing. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  1902,  made 
a  systematic  investigation  of  the  moisture  content  of  American 
butter  as  ordinarily  manufactured.  In  800  samples  of  butter 
from  400  creameries  in  18  states  the  extremes  were  7.20  and 
17.62  per  cent  moisture;  85  per  cent  of  the  samples  showed 
between  10  and  14  per  cent,  and  the  average  of  all  was  11.78 
per  cent  of  moisture. 

Composition  of  butter  fat.  Like  all  other  natural  fats  butter 
fat  consists  of  a  mixture  of  glycerides  of  fatty  acids.  It  is 
characterized,  however,  by  containing  more  butyrin  (yielding 
butyric  acid)  and  less  stearin  (yielding  stearic  acid)  than  other 
food  fats. 

Browne  made  an  extended  study  of  the  amounts  of  each 
fatty  acid  in  a  specimen  of  butter  fat  with  the  results  shown  in 
Table  48. 

These  figures  represent  the  composition  of  a  particular  sample 
of  fat  and  not  necessarily  the  average.  That  individual 
samples  vary  considerably  in  composition  is  evident  from  the 
results  of  several  independent  investigations. 

According  to  Browne,  sickness,  peculiarities  of  feed,  and 
advancement  in  the  period  of  lactation  are  the  principal  causes 
of  irregularities  in  the  composition  of  butter  fat ;   certain  feeds, 


376 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


of  which  gluten  meal  is  an  example,  tend  to  increase  the  pro- 
portion of  olein  in  the  butter,  while  beets  and  other  roots  have 
an  opposite  effect. 

Table  48.     Fatty  Acid  Radicles  in  Butter  Fat  (Browne) 


Fatty  Acid 


Calculated  as 
Acid 


Calculated 
AS  Glyceride 


Butyric     U 

Caproic      \y 

Caprylic     .V^. 

_^pjic  .     .K* 

Laurie r 

Myristic 

Palmitic 

Stearic 

Oleic 

Dioxystearic 

Total     .     .     . 


Per  cent 

S-4S 
2.09 
0.49 

o.3^2_ 

2-57 

9.89 

38:61 

1.83 

32-50 

\y       i.oo 


94-75 


Per  cent 
6.32 
2.32 
0-53 
0.34 
2-73 
10.44 
4051 
1.91. 

33-95 
1.04 


The  standard  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists  is  as  follows :  "  Butter  is  the  clean,  non-rancid  product 
made  by  gathering  in  any  manner  the  fat  of  fresh  or  ripened 
cream  into  a  mass  which  also  contains  a  small  portion  of  the 
other  milk  constituents,  with  or  without  salt,  and  contains  not 
less  than  82.5  per  cent  of  milk  fat.  By  acts  of  Congress  ap- 
proved August  2,  1886,  and  May  9,  1902,  butter  may  also  con- 
tain added  matter  coloring." 

Fuel  value  of  butter.  Atwater  and  Bryant  estimated  the 
average  fat  content  of  butter  at  85  per  cent,  which  according 
to  modern  factors  of  fuel  value  would  yield  about  3500  Calories 
per  pound. 

With  increased  knowledge  and  skill  professional  butter 
makers  have  tended  to  increase  their  "  over- run  "  by  leaving 
somewhat  more  water  in  the  batter  than  formerly.     If  McKay 


EDIBLE  FATS  AND  OILS  377 

and  Larsen's  estimate  of  84  per  cent  represents  the  present 
average  fat  content  of  butter,  the  average  fuel  value  is  about 
3450  Calories  per  pound. 

The  above  minimum  standard  of  82.5  per  cent  fat  insures 
only  a  minimum  of  3370  Calories  per  pound,  but  the  average 
should  of  course  exceed  this  minimum. 

Process  Butter 

Butter  of  inferior  flavor  or  which  has  become  more  or  less 
rancid  is  often  "  renovated  "  or  "  processed."  This  usually 
consists  in  melting  the  butter,  removing  the  froth  or  scum,  and 
drawing  off  the  curd  and  brine  which  settle  out  of  the  melted 
butter,  blowing  air  through  the  melted  fat  to  expel  faulty  odors, 
and  re-churning  the  fa^t  thus  purified  with  fresh  milk  or  cream. 

In  the  butter  markets,  process  butter  is  an  established  grade. 
In  many  states,  however,  restrictions  are  placed  upon  the  sale 
of  process  butter,  while  good  and  bad  grades  of  original  butter 
are  sold  side  by  side  without  restriction. 

A  simple  test  much  used  to  distinguish  original  butter  from 
process  butter  or  oleomargarine  is  to  heat  some  of  it  in  a  table- 
spoon or  small  dish,  with  stirring,  until  it  boils  briskly,  and  stir 
two  or  three  times  thoroughly  while  boiling.  Original  butter 
boils  without  much  noise  but  with  an  abundance  of  foam. 
Process  butter  and  oleomargarine  boil  more  noisily,  sputtering 
like  a  mixture  of  water  and  fat  in  a  frying  pan,  and  give  less  foam 
than  butter. 

The  definition  and  standard  of  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists  is  as  follows :  "  Renovated  butter, 
process  butter,  is  the  product  made  by  melting  butter  and  re- 
working without  the  addition  or  use  of  chemicals  or  any  sub- 
stances except  milk,  cream,  or  salt,  and  contains  not  more  than 
16  per  cent  of  water  and  at  least  82.5  per  cent  of  milk  fat." 

According  to  Wiley  the  quantity  of  renovated  butter  produced 
during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1905,  was  60.290,421  pounds. 


378  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Oleomargarine  (Margarine) 

"  Oleomargarine  "  in  America,  "  margarine  "  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany,  is  the  term  applied  to  butter  substitutes 
made  by  churning  fats  other  than  butter  fat  with  milk  or  cream 
to  a  butter-like  emulsion. 

The  soft  beef  fat  which  was  the  original  basis  of  these  prep- 
arations is  called  "  oleo  oil  "  in  America ;  Lewkowitsch  states 
that  in  England  it  is  called  "  oleomargarine." 

Legislation  in  the  United  States  has  generally  been  such  as  to 
discourage  the  oleomargarine  industry,  and  its  volume  for  the 
census  year  1909  is  estimated  at  only  about  $8,148,000,  or  about 
2  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  butter  industry. 

According  to  Lewkowitsch  Great  Britain  in  1906  imported 
butter  to  the  value  of  £22,417,926  and  "margarine"  to  the 
value  of  £  2,223,645,  i.e.  the  imported  "  margarine  "  equaled 
10  per  cent  of  the  imported  butter  in  value  (doubtless  more 
than  10  per  cent  in  amount),  and  this  exclusive  of  considerable 
quantities  of  edible  fats  which  were  worked  up  into  butter  sub- 
stitutes in  England,  Lewkowitsch  estimates  the  home  produc- 
tion of  margarine  in  the  United  Kingdom  as  over  100,000,000 
pounds,  or  about  as  much  as  is  imported. 

Manufacture  of  oleomargarine.  The  commercial  prepara- 
tion of  an  artificial  butter  was  first  described  in  1870  by  Mege, 
a  French  chemist,  who  was  led  to  study  the  subject  through  his 
desire  to  furnish  to  poor  people  and  to  sailors  a  cheaper  and  more 
stable  article  than  ordinary  butter.  He  sought  to  imitate  the 
physiological  process  by  which  the  body  fat  of  a  cow  may  become 
changed  into  milk  fat  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  fat  "  which 
melted  at  almost  the  exact  temperature  of  butter,  possessed  a 
sweet  and  agreeable  taste,  and  which  for  most  purposes  could 
replace^  ordinary  butter,  not,  of  course,  the  finest  kinds,  but 
which  was  superior  to  it  in  possessing  the  advantageous  pecul- 
iarity of  keeping  for  a  long  time  without  becoming  rancid." 


EDIBLE  FATS  AND   OILS  379 

The  details  of  the  process  used  by  Mege,  many  of  which  are  now 
known  to  be  unnecessary,  are  given  in  his  United  States  Patent, 
No.  146012,  dated  December  30,  1873,  and  in  Bulletin  13, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
pages  10-12. 

I  The  chief  fats  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  are 
*'  oleo  oil  "  prepared  from  beef  fat  and  "  neutral  "  lard.  The 
preparation  of  "  oleo  oil  "  may  be  described  first : 

Oleo  oil.  The  fat  of  freshly  killed  beeves,  chiefly  the  fat  of 
visceral  cavity,  known  as  "  caul  fat,"  is  thoroughly  washed, 
first  in  tepid  and  then  in  cold  water,  and  then  thoroughly 
chilled  either  by  means  of  ice  water  or  by  hanging  for  some 
time  in  artificially  cooled  rooms.  The  hardened  fat  is  then 
cut  up  and  ground  and  the  disintegrated  mass  transferred  to 
a  jacketed  melting  kettle. 

Formerly  this  fat  was  rendered  at  55°  to  80°  C.  (i3o°-i75°  F.), 
the  fluid  fat  thus  obtained  was  allowed  to  cool  slowly  until 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  stearin  and  palmitin  had  crys- 
tallized out,  the  pasty  mass  then  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure, 
and  the  fluid  pressed  out  (about  two  thirds  of  the  whole)  was 
run  into  cold  water  and  allowed  to  solidify  into  a  granular  mass, 
—  the  "  oleo  "  or  "  oleo  oil  "  of  commerce. 

According  to  Lewkowitsch  the  temperature  of  rendering  is 
now  much  lower,  not  above  42°  C.  (107°  F.),  this  temperature 
being  maintained  for  a  longer  time  by  means  of  steam  or  hot 
water  in  the  jacket  of  the  kettle.  At  this  temperature  the  tissue 
slowly  sinks,  and  a  part  of  the  fat  melts  and  separates  at  the 
top.  Sprinkling  salt  on  the  mass  assists  in  the  settling  of  the 
tissue  and  the  clearing  of  the  surface  fat.  The  latter  is  then  run 
off  and  either  allowed  to  cool  to  the  proper  point  and  pressed, 
or  (for  the  better  grades  of  oleomargarine)  may  be  remelted 
and  freed  from  the  last  portions  of  membrane  and  tissue  by 
further  standing  and  sprinkHng  with  salt.  Finally  it  is  care- 
fully cooled  to  the  proper  temperature  for  crystallizing  out  the 


380  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

desired  proportion  of  "  stearin,"  and  is  sometimes  held  at  this 
temperature  for  3  to  5  days  before  going  to  the  hydraulic 
presses. 

Neutral  lard.  For  the  preparation  of  lard  to  be  used  in 
making  butter  substitutes  the  "  leaf  fat  "  of  the  hog  is  quickly 
removed,  freed  from  flesh,  chopped  into  small  pieces,  and  then 
thoroughly  washed  with  cold  water.  It  is  then  rendered  at  a 
temperature  of  40°  to  50°  C,  yielding  a  practically  neutral 
product  known  in  the  trade  as  Neutral  Lard  No.  i.  When  the 
leaf  fat  cannot  be  rendered  at  once,  it  is  kept  in  refrigerating 
rooms  until  it  can  be  worked  up.  This  prolonged  cooling  process 
is  considered  by  some  an  advantage,  inasmuch  as  it  is  said  to 
be  more  effective  than  simple  washing  in  removing  the  "  animal 
flavor." 

The  neutral  lard  or  the  oleo  oil  is,  of  course,  brought  to  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  hardness  in  different  cases,  a  harder  fat  being 
prepared  in  case  cottonseed  oil  or  other  oil  is  to  be  admixed. 

The  chief  desiderata  are  that  each  fat  (except  the  butter  which 
is  churned  in  later)  shall  be  as  free  as  possible  from  taste  and 
odor,  and  that  the  final  mixture  of  fats  have  practically  the  same 
melting  point  as  butter  fat  for  this  climate ;  for  a  warm  climate 
a  little  harder  and  for  a  cold  climate  a  little  softer. 

Cottonseed  oil  especially  prepared  for  use  in  butter  substitutes 
is  called  "  butter  oil  "  and  is  considerably  used,  as  is  also  or- 
dinary cottonseed  oil  and  cottonseed  "  stearin."  In  Europe 
sesame  oil  is  used  in  the  same  way.  Coconut  fat  and  arachis 
(peanut)  oil  are  also  used  in  some  cases. 

Final  mixing.  The  foreign  fats  having  thus  been  obtained 
in  proper  condition  and  mixed  in  the  desired  proportions,  the 
mixture  is  fed  into  a  churn  containing  milk  or  an  emulsified 
mixture  of  milk  and  butter  (sometimes  also  cream).  The 
amounts  of  milk,  cream,  and  butter  vary  greatly  according  to  the 
quality  of  product  being  made.  In  some  countries  the  amount 
is  restricted  by  law  in  order  that  the  product  may  be  easily 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  38 1 

distinguishable  from  butter.  In  this  country  any  proportions 
may  be  used,  but  the  product  must  always  be  called  oleomargarine, 
and  whatever  its  quality  is  subject  to  the  restrictions  noted  later. 
The  foreign  fats  having  been  gradually  churned  into  the  milk 
(or  milk  and  butter  mixture)  and  the  whole  mass  having  been 
"  pulverized  "  by  means  of  rotating  paddles  into  a  granular 
emulsion  which  will  not  permit  any  subsequent  crystallization 
of  the  beef  fat,  the  product  is  cooled,  washed,  salted,  and  worked 
as  in  buttermaking. 

Legal  controL  In  the  United  States  the  oleomargarine  in- 
dustry has  been  regulated  by  the  Federal  Laws  of  August  2, 
1886,  and  May  9,  1902.  The  latter  law  taxes  uncolored  oleo- 
margarine 0.25  cent  and  colored  oleomargarine  10  cents  per 
pound.  This  prevents  the  use  of  artificial  coloring  matter  in 
oleomargarine  made  and  used  in  this  country.  For  this  reason 
preference  is  now  given  to  fats  having  naturally  a  yellow  color. 
Government  officials  have  objected  to  the  use  of  yellow  fats 
in  making  oleomargarine,  but  have  not  been  able  to  stop  the 
practice.  The  oleomargarine  now  commonly  sold  is  distinctly 
yellowish,  though  not  nearly  so  yellow  as  is  ordinary  butter. 

The  United  States  law  does  not  specify  the  fats  to  be  used  in 
making  oleomargarine,  but  all  mixtures  of  butter  with  other 
fats  must  be  sold  as  oleomargarine  and  practically  must  be  un- 
colored, since  the  tax  of  10  cents  a  pound  on  colored  oleomargarine 
is  prohibitive.  Factories  must  register  with  the  Bureau  of 
Internal  Revenue  and  furnish  the  government  with  detailed 
reports  of  their  operations.  They  are  always  open  to  Federal 
inspection. 

In  Great  Britain  since  1899  the  maximum  proportion  of  butter 
fat  in  oleomargarine  is  limited  to  10  per  cent.  Since  1907  the 
water  content  is  limited  to  16  per  cent  and  the  factories  are  sub- 
ject to  inspection. 

In  France  up  to  1897  butter  and  oleomargarine  could  be 
mixed  in  any  proportions  provided  the  mixture  was  sold  for 


382  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

whatit  was.  But  by  Law  of  April  16, 1897,  the  amount  of  butter 
which  may  be  admixed  with  oleomargarine  is  limited  to  10  per 
cent. 

Germany  and  Austria  forbid  the  direct  mixing  of  butter  and 
oleomargarine  either  during  or  after  manufacture,  and  restrict 
the  amount  of  milk  which  may  be  used  in  making  the  oleomar- 
garine to  100  parts  of  milk  or  an  equivalent  amount  of  cream 
to  each  100  parts  of  fat.  In  effect  this  limits  the  butter  or  milk- 
fat  content  of  the  finished  product  to  about  3.5  per  cent.  These 
countries  also  require  the  use  of  10  per  cent  of  sesame  oil  in 
oleomargarine  to  permit  its  more  ready  detection. 

In  Denmark  under  the  Law  of  Jan.  i,  1906,  the  proportion 
of  butter  in  oleomargarine  is  limited  to  a  maximum  of  15  per 
cent,  the  color  is  restricted,  and  the  product  must  contain  10 
per  cent  of  sesame  oil. 

In  Belgium  under  Law  of  May  4,  1900,  it  is  required  that 
oleomargarine  contain  at  least  5  parts  of  sesame  oil  per  100 
parts  of  fatty  matter  and  that  it  be  further  "  earmarked  " 
by  the  addition  of  0.2  per  cent  of  dry  potato  starch,  which  may 
readily  be  detected  by  the  iodine  reaction. 

Vegetable  Fats  as  Butter  Substitutes 

Edible  fats  of  the  consistency  of  butter  are  obtainable  from 
a  number  of  vegetable  sources. 

Any  of  the  edible  oils  may  be  chilled  and  pressed  at  such 
a  temperature  as  to  leave  a  soft  soUd  residue.  This  is  a  regular 
practice  with  cottonseed  oil,  the  soUd  product  being  called 
"  cottonseed  stearin,"  although  the  proportion  of  stearic  acid 
is  not  large. 

Coconut  and  palm  nut  fat  are  of  nearly  the  desired  melting 
point  in  their  natural  state  and  so  lend  themselves  readily  to 
this  puipose,  but  require  careful  refining  to  remove  their  char- 
acteristic tastes  and  odors.  Different  methods  have  been  pat- 
ented for  the  refining  of  these  fats  and  no  reliable  information 


EDIBLE  FATS   AND   OILS  383 

is  at  hand  as  to  which  methods  are  most  used,  but  the  results 
are  now  sufficiently  satisfactory  so  that  large  quantities  of  these 
fats  are  sold  for  food. 

Lewkowitsch  estimates  the  production  of  coconut  and  palm 
nut  butters,  in  Europe  in  1907  at  50,000  to  60,000  tons  or  100,- 
000,000  to  120,000,000  pounds. 

At  first  the  refined  coconut  oil  was  used  as  an  adulterant 
of  butter,  and  on  account  of  containing  a  considerable  proportion 
of  lauric  acid  and  appreciable  amounts  of  fatty  acids  of  still 
lower  molecular  weight  it  is  more  difficult  to  detect  than  oleo- 
margarine ;  but  methods  for  its  detection  were  soon  developed, 
and  as  the  processes  of  refining  were  perfected  and  a  more  at- 
tractive product  obtained  it  has  come  to  have  an  independent 
market  as  an  honest  substitute  for  butter  both  as  a  culinary 
fat  and  (extensively)  in  the  making  of  confectionary  and  fancy 
bakery  products.  The  manufacturers  as  a  rule  attempt  to 
keep  their  processes  secret  and  often  market  their  product 
under  copyrighted  names. 

These  products  are  not  so  largely  used  in  this  country  as  in 
Europe,  largely  no  doubt  because  butter  and  lard  are  relatively 
cheaper  here,  and  probably  also  in  part  because  of  the  expense 
of  importing  from  Europe,  where  the  refining  industry  is  prin- 
cipally developed. 

Olive  Oil 

In  comparison  with  other  food  fats,  olive  oil  plays  a  relatively 
less  prominent  part  in  the  United  States  than  in  many  Euro- 
pean countries.  It  has  been  estimated  unofficially  that  about 
350,000  gallons  of  olive  oil  are  produced  annually  in  California, 
and  according  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
the  imports  amounted  in  1912  to  4,836,515  gallons.  The  total 
weight  of  olive  oil  consumed  is  therefore  probably  between  2  and 
3  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  butter. 

Olives  for  green  pickles  are  gathered  very  soon  after  they  reach 


384  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

full  size  and  before  they  have  begun  to  color  or  soften,  but  for 
ripe  pickles  and  [for  oil  making  olives  are  gathered  when  they 
contain  the  maximum  amount  of  oil,  which  is  soon  after  they 
are  well  colored  and  before  they  become  black.  If  the  olives  are 
too  green,  the  oil  will  be  bitter ;  if  too  ripe,  it  will  be  rancid. 

The  flesh  of  ripe  olives  is  about  one  half  oil.  When  the  skin 
is  broken  a  considerable  proportion  of  this  oil  exudes  from  the 
pulpy  flesh,  either  spontaneously  or  under  very  slight  pressure 
in  the  cold.  This  is  called  "  virgin,"  "  sublime,"  or  "  first- 
expressed  "  oil  and  the  highest  grades  are  obtained  from  selected, 
hand-picked  olives. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  olive  oil  the  olives  are  thor- 
oughly crushed  either  by  corrugated  metal  rolls  or  by  heavy 
stones  revolving  in  masonry  trenches. 

The  crushed  pulp  is  placed  in  fabric  of  woven  esparto  grass 
(in  Europe)  or  coarse  linen  cloth  (in  Cahfornia),  and  the  fabric 
folded  over  it  to  make  a  cheese  about  three  feet  square  and  three 
inches  thick.  Ten  or  more  of  these  cheeses  are  placed  one 
above  the  other,  with  slats  between  them,  and  pressure  is  applied. 

The  oil  obtained  by  pressure  under  these  conditions  is  second 
in  quality  to  the  "  virgin  oil,"  and  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the 
edible  olive  oil  of  commerce. 

After  obtaining  as  much  oil  as  possible  in  this  way,  the  cheeses 
are  taken  out,  broken  to  pieces,  mixed  with  hot  water  and 
pressed  again,  yielding  a  third-grade  oil.  Further  yields  of  much 
inferior  oil  may  be  obtained  by  repeated  pressing  with  hot  water 
in  very  powerful  presses  or  by  extraction  with  solvents,  but  in 
Cahfornia  this  is  not  usually  done.  The  residual  pulp  is  used 
for  fattening  swine. 

In  order  to  clarify  the  dark-colored  oil  obtained  from  the 
press,  it  is  usually  filtered  first  through  cotton  wool,  then  allowed 
to  settld  for  24  hours  in  funnel-shaped  tanks  from  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  sediment  is  drawn  off,  and  finally  run  into 
settling  tanks  lined  with  tin  or  glass  where  the  oil  stands  for  2  to 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  385 

5  months,  being  repeatedly  racked  off  (usually  three  times  in  all) 
until  it  is  entirely  clarified. 

The  flavor  of  olive  oil,  which  chiefly  determines  its  commercial 
value  quite  apart  from  any  question  of  genuineness  or  purity, 
depends  largely  upon  the  variety  of  olive,  its  ripeness  when 
picked,  the  manner  of  handling,  the  length  of  time  it  is  stored 
before  pressing,  the  temperature  and  pressure  at  which  the  oil 
is  drawn,  and  other  conditions  of  manufacture. 

Chemically  olive  oil  consists  chiefly  of.  olein,  the  giyceride 
of  oleic  acid. 

According  to  the  standards  of  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists :  "  Olive  oil  is  the  oil  obtained  from  the 
sound,  mature  fruit  of  the  cultivated  olive  tree  (Oka  europaa  L.) 
and  subjected  to  the  usual  refining  processes ;  is  free  from  rancid- 
ity; has  a  refractive  index  (25°  C.)  not  less  than  1.4660  and 
not  exceeding  i  .4680 ;  and  an  iodine  number  not  less  than  79 
and  not  exceeding  90."  "  Virgin  Olive  Oil  is  olive  oil  obtained 
from  the  first  pressing  of  carefully  selected,  hand-picked  olive's." 

The  purpose  in  setting  limits  to  the  index  of  refraction  and 
"  iodine  number  "  in  the  standard  for  olive  oil  is  to  aid  in  dis- 
tinguishing it  from  other  edible  oils  of  only  slightly  different 
physical  and  chemical  properties. 

Out  of  the  first  25  prosecutions  for  adulteration  or  misbranding 
of  oUve  oil  under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  23  were  because 
of  the  presence  of  cottonseed  oil  not  properly  declared,  one  was 
for  short  weight,  and  one  was  because  the  label  bore  a  false 
statement  that  the  oil  had  been  inspected  by  a  government 
chemist. 

The  courts  have  upheld  the  position  of  government  that  the 
term  "  salad  oil  "  when  used  alone  is  understood  to  mean  olive 
oil ;  but  in  one  case  in  which  a  label  bore  the  words  salad  oil 
in  large  letters  and  cottonseed  oil  in  small  letters  the  court 
decided  against  the  government  charge  of  misbranding. 

In  the  administration  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  the  following 


386  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

notice  has  recently  been  issued :  "  Pending  a  final  decision 
of  this  matter,  no  objection  will  be  made  to  the  use  of  the  term 
Salad  Oil  on  oils  other  than  olive  oil,  when  such  oils  are  pure, 
harmless,  and  edible,  providing  the  term  Salad  Oil  be  plainly 
qualified  by  the  common  name  of  the  oil  or  oils  actually  used. 
These  qualifying  names  should  be  stated  on  the  label  with  a 
prominence  equal  to  that  of  the  term  Salad  Oil." 

Other  Edible  Oils 

Many  fatty  oils  besides  that  of  the  olive  are  entirely  suitable  for 
-use  as  human  food. 

The  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  include 
among  edible  vegetable  oils  and  fats  of  suflficient  importance 
to  warrant  standardizing,  the  oils  of  cottonseed,  peanut,  sesame 
seed,  poppyseed,  coconut,  rape  seed,  sunflower,  and  maize,  as  well 
as  the  solid  fats  cocoa  butter  and  cottonseed  "  stearin." 

Of  these  peanut  oil  bears  the  closest  resemblance  to  olive 
oil  in  chemical  and  physical  properties,  and  is  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil  in  Europe,  but  not 
to  such  a  large  extent  in  this  country  because  of  the  elaborate 
refining  required  to  remove  the  characteristic  flavor. 

Cotton  seed  and  sesame  seed  yield  oils  very  similar  to  each 
other  and  not  very  different  from  olive  oil  in  general  nature  but 
each  possessed  of  characteristic  color  reactions  by  which  it  is 
readily  identified.  It  is  for  the  latter  reason  that  sesame  oil, 
which  is  abundant  in  Europe  and  is  known  to  be  a  wholesome 
food,  is  required  by  the  laws  of  some  of  the  European  countries  to 
be  added  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine  as  a  means  of 
making  the  latter  easily  distinguishable  from  butter. 

Sesame  oil  is  not  produced  in  this  country,  and  there  is  no 
inducement  to  import  it  in  any  quantity  because  cottonseed  oil, 
having  nearly  the  same  properties  and  being  equally  adapted 
to  the  same  uses,  is  produced  here  in  such  abundance  as  to  supply 
the  entire  home  market  and  leave  a  large  surplus  for  export. 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  387 

It  is  estimated  that  the  average  cotton  crop  of  the  United 
States  yields  about  12,000,000  bales  of  fiber  and  about  6,000,000 
tons  of  seed  and  that  about  4,000,000  tons  of  seed  are  crushed 
and  pressed  with  the  production  of  about  3,000,000  barrels  of 
crude  cottonseed  oil  annually  (three  fourths  of  the  world's 
production).  About  half  of  this  oil  is  refined  and  used  as  human 
food,  but  not  all  in  this  country,  as  a  very  large  part  of  it  is 
exported  to  Europe. 

The  modern  process  of  refining  cottonseed  oil  involves  treat- 
ments (i)  by  sodium  hydroxide,  (2)  with  fuller's  earth,  and 
(3)  by  a  secret  method  for  removal  of  the  "  earthy  flavor." 
The  final  product  is  nearly  free  from  any  characteristic  flavor 
and  is  steadily  growing  in  favor  both  as  a  substitute  for  olive 
oil  and  as  a  cooking  fat.  The  highest  quality  refined  cotton- 
seed oil  costs  one  third  to  one  half  as  much  as  a  medium-grade 
olive  oil  and  has  essentially  the  same  food  value  since  both  are 
practically  pure  fats. 

Lard  and  Lard  Substitutes 

Under  the  conditions  ordinarily  pertaining  in  the  fattening 
and  slaughter  of  swine,  each  hog  yields  about  30  pounds  of 
lard.  The  refining  of  lard  constitutes  an  important  branch 
of  the  industry  of  slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  the  exporta- 
tion of  lard  for  the  year  1909  being  reported  at  528,722,000 
pounds.  How  much  lard  is  taken  by  the  home  market  is  not 
definitely  known,  since  the  statistics  do  not  sufficiently  separate 
lard  from  pork  on  the  one  hand  and  lard  substitutes  on  the  other. 

Commercial  lard  is  nearly  pure  fat,  the  total  amount  of  other 
substances  being  usually  less  than  one  per  cent. 

Lard  substitutes  are  usually  mixtures  of  beef  fat  and  cotton- 
seed oil.  The  solid  residual  fat  from  which  "  oleo  oil  "  has  been 
pressed,  and  which  is  technically  known  as  "  oleostearin,"  is 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose. 

Some  of  these  "  lard  compounds  "  are  widely  advertised  and 


388  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

favorably  known  under  trade  names  and  sell  for  about  the 
same  price  as  lard. 

Refined  cottonseed  oil  is  sometimes  chilled  and  pressed  at 
such  a  temperature  that  about  one  fifth  of  the  whole  is  obtained 
as  a  solid  which  is  called  "  cottonseed  stearin,"  and  may  be 
used  as  a  lard  substitute  either  alone  or  in  admixture  with  other 
fats.  The  other  four  fifths  of  the  oil,  being  free  from  the  more 
readily  solidifiable  glycerides,  can  be  subjected  to  low  tem- 
perature without  yielding  crystals  or  showing  turbidity  and  is 
known  commercially  as  "  winter  oil." 

In  recent  years  the  transformation  of  liquid  glycerides  of  un- 
saturated fatty  acids  into  the  corresponding  saturated  com- 
pounds which  are  solids,  with  resultant  thickening  or  hardening 
of  the  fat  containing  such  glycerides,  has  been  developed  on  a 
commercial  scale.  Cottonseed  oil  is  the  material  chiefly  used 
in  this  country,  and  the  "  hydrogenation  "  is  accomplished  by 
heating  with  hydrogen  in  the  presence  of  nickel  as  a  catalytic 
agent,  the  process  being  carried  to  such  a  point  as  to  yield  a 
product  of  the  appearance  and  consistency  of  lard. 

It  is  said  that  experiments  are  now  (1914)  in  progress  to  de- 
termine whether  a  small  amount  of  nickel  remaining  in  the  final 
product  is  likely  to  have  any  physiological  effects. 

Place  of  Fats  in  the  Diet 

Fats  have  more  than  twice  the  energy  value  of  either  proteins 
or  carbohydrates  in  nutrition,  and  it  has  repeatedly  been  seen 
in  earlier  chapters  that  the  energy  values  of  food  materials  which 
contain  a  mixture  of  nutrients  are  largely  due  to  their  fat  con- 
tent. The  food  fats  which  appear  in  commerce  in  an  approxi- 
mately pure  state  are  closely  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with, 
those  which  have  already  entered  into  our  consideration  of  the 
food  values  of  meats,  milk,  grains,  etc.  Hence  there  is  no  occa- 
sion to  question  the  general  wholesomeness  and  food  value  of 
such  staple  food  fats  as  butter,  oleomargarine,  lard,  olive  oil,  cot- 


EDIBLE   FATS  AND   OILS 


389 


tonseed  oil,  etc.,  and  we  need  only  consider  whether  these  are 
of  equal  value  with  each  other  and  whether  their  liberal  use  is 
likely  to  make  the  total  fat  content  of  the  diet  excessive  or 
the  diet  one-sided  in  any  way. 

Comparative  digestibility  of  fats.  The  fats  ordinarily  used 
as  food  by  man  do  not  differ  greatly  in  the  extent  to  which  they 
are  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract  under  normal  conditions. 
Such  differences  as  have  been  found  seem  to  be  explained  by 
the  differing  hardness  or  melting  points  of  the  fats.  If  the  melt- 
ing point  of  the  fat  lies  much  above  the  body  temperature,  the 
fat  will  not  become  sufficiently  fluid  in  the  intestine  to  be  readily 
emulsified  and  digested.  The  following  data  determined  by 
Munk  and  Arnschink  are  cited  by  Von  Noorden  in  this  con- 
nection : 


Nature  of  Fat 


Stearin 

Mixture  of  stearin  and  almond  oil 

Mutton  fat 

Mutton  fat 

Lard 

Bacon  fat 

Goose  fat 

Olive  oil 


Per  Cent  Lost 
IN  Feces 


These  results  show  good  utilization  and  no  significant  dif- 
ferences in  digestibility  among  fats  melting  at  or  below  43°  C, 
while  with  melting  points  from  49°  to  55°  C.  the  losses  were 
considerable,  and  with  stearin  melting  at  60°  C.  much  the 
greatest  part  failed  of  digestion.  Notice,  however,  that  the 
admixture  of  sufficient  almond  oil  to  lower  the  melting  point  a 
few  degrees  resulted  in  very  greatly  increased  digestibility. 
Hence  while  stearin  eaten  alone  is  only  slightly  digested,  yet  fats 


390  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

containing  much  stearin  may  be  digested  very  well  provided 
they  also  contain  enough  olein  so  that  the  melting  point  of  the 
mixture  as  a  whole  is  not  much  above  body  temperature.  Since 
oleomargarine  contains  notably  more  stearin  than  butter  it  was 
at  one  time  thought  that  it  might  show  correspondingly  larger 
losses  in  digestion ;  but  repeated  experiments  have  shown  that 
oleomargarine  (being  made  so  as  to  have  about  the  same  hard- 
ness) shows  practically  the  same  small  losses  in  digestion  as  does 
butter.  Thus  in  experiments  by  Luhrig  the  coefficient  of  digesti- 
bility was  97.86  per  cent  for  the  butter  and  97.55  per  cent  for 
the  oleomargarine. 

In  experiments  in  which  cooked  oils  and  fats  were  fed  to  mice, 
Moore  found  for  olive  oil  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  96.70  to 
98.71 ;  for  cottonseed  oil,  94.43  to  97.95 ;  for  home-made  lard, 
96.45  to  97.17  per  cent.  In  another  series  of  experiments  in 
which  Moore  fed  uncooked  oils  to  guinea  pigs  the  results  were 
lower  and  less  regular  but  indicated  that  olive,  peanut,  corn,  and 
cottonseed  oils  were  all  digested  to  practically  the  same  degree. 

As  regards  "  digestibility  "  in  the  more  popular  sense  of  relat- 
ing to  the  ease,  comfort,  and  rapidity  with  which  the  digestive 
organs  carry  on  their  work,  it  may  be  said  that  the  fats  generally 
retard  the  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  and  tend  to  make  the 
food  stay  longer  in  the  stomach.  To  the  extent  that  the  ease 
of  digestion  is  inferred  from  the  rapidity  with  which  a  meal  passes 
from  the  stomach  into  the  intestine  the  eating  of  fat  appears  to 
retard  the  process,  and  this  is  true  to  a  greater  extent  the  higher 
the  melting  point  of  the  fat. 

While  the  eating  of  much  fat  may  thus  prevent  the  digestion 
of  food  in  the  stomach  from  going  forward  as  promptly  and 
pleasantly  as  it  otherwise  might,  it  is  unlikely  that  the  fat  will 
exert  any  direct  effect  tending  toward  discomfort  except  in  the 
sense  th&,t  if  fat  is  overheated  in  cooking  it  may  in  part  be  decomi- 
. posed  with  the  production  of  irritating  substances.  It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  if  foods  are  cooked  in  or  with  fat  in  such 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  39 1 

a  way  as  to  form  a  coating  of  fat  over  the  other  constituents  of  the 
food,  the  digestion  of  the  proteins  and  carbohydrates  may  be 
retarded,  since  the  materials  which  are  coated  with  layers  of 
fat  will  not  be  permeated  readily  by  the  saliva  or  the  gastric 
juice.  These  latter  possibilities  of  unfavorable  action  of  fat 
are  not  properly  chargeable  to  fat  itself,  but  rather  to  the  unin- 
telligent way  in  which  it  is  sometimes  cooked. 

Fats  are  less  susceptible  to  objectionable  decomposition  by 
the  bacteria  of  the  digestive  tract  than  are  proteins  and  car- 
bohydrates. 

In  metabolism  fat  can  serve  interchangeably  with  carbohy- 
drate as  fuel  within  very  wide  limits.  The  different  food  fats 
have  nearly  the  same  fuel  value  when  in  the  same  state  of  purity. 
Lard,  olive  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  etc.,  are  practically  100  per  cent 
fat  and  have  energy  values  of  about  4000  Calories  per  pound, 
while  butter  as  stated  above  contains  a  considerable  percentage 
of  water  and  salt,  and  shows  usually  83  to  85  per  cent  of  fat  with 
about  3400  to  3500  Calories  per  pound.  Recently  it  has  been 
discovered  that  the  energy  value  of  its  fat  content  does  not 
express  the  entire  food  value  or  nutritive  function  of  butter. 

Osborne  and  Mendel,  in  the  course  of  their  extended  feeding 
experiments  with  isolated  food  substances  which  have  been 
referred  to  in  earlier  chapters,  have  found  that  diets  otherwise 
sufficient  fail  to  maintain  growth  and  health  unless  they  contain 
certain  hitherto  unrecognized  substances,  apparently  of  lipoid 
nature,  which  in  practice  are  best  supplied  by  the  feeding  of  milk 
or  butter.  In  general  their  results  confirm  and  extend  the  obser- 
vations published  just  previously  by  Stepp  and  by  McCullom 
and  Davis. 

The  work  of  Osborne  and  Mendel  and  of  McCullom  and  Davis 
taken  together  indicate  that  the  important  substances  in  ques- 
tion are  contained  in  butter,  egg  fat,  and  codliver  oil,  and  are  not 
contained  in  lard,  almond  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  or  olive  oil. 

These  observations  are  very  recent,  and  as  yet  we  do  not  know 


392  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

just  how  important  these  substances  may  prove  to  be  and  how 
much  more  than  its  energy  value  should  be  credited  to  butter 
in  the  evaluation  of  the  various  types  of  food. 

Since  the  conmiercially  isolated  fats  such  as  butter,  lard,  and 
the  edible  oils  are  practically  devoid  of  protein  and  natural  ash 
constituents,  the  question  may  properly  be  asked  whether  the 
free  use  of  such  fats  may  impoverish  the  diet  either  as  regards 
protein  or  any  specific  chemical  element  to  any  significant  extent. 

It  was  shown  above  that  the  total  butter  consumption  of  the 
United  States  amounts  to  about  three  fourths  to  four  fifths  of 
an  ounce  per  person  per  day.  The  amounts  of  all  other  com- 
mercial fats  consumed  are  very  much  smaller,  so  that  the  total 
consumption  of  all  commercial  fats  is  probably  only  about  equiv- 
alent to  an  average  of  one  ounce  of  butter  per  capita  per  day. 
Inasmuch  as  this  would  furnish  only  200  to  220  Calories  per 
day,  and  as  the  butter  has  a  food  value  not  yet  measured  in 
quantitative  terms  in  addition  to  its  fuel  value,  it  would  seem 
that,  even  though  butter  is  used  more  liberally  here  than  in  other 
countries,  its  use  is  not  in  the  case  of  the  average  individual 
displacing  other  foods  to  an  extent  which  need  occasion  anxiety 
at  present.  The  corresponding  question  presents  itself  in  more 
serious  form  in  connection  with  the  rapidly  increasing  use  of 
refined  sugar  and  will  be  considered  in  the  discussion  of  the  place 
of  sugar  in  the  diet  (Chapter  XI). 

Fat,  being  a  very  compact  form  of  fuel,  properly  finds  its  largest 
place  in  the  diet  in  those  cases  in  which  the  energy  requirement 
is  high,  as  in  persons  doing  large  amounts  of  muscular  work  or 
exposed  to  severe  cold.  In  such  cases  there  is  largely  increased 
need  for  fuel  without  any  corresponding  increase  in  the  need  for 
protein  or  for  other  specific  nutrients.  Here  a  large  part  or 
even  all  of  the  extra  energy  requirement  may  be  met  by  feeding 
practi<;ally  pure  fats,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  organism, 
whether  at  hard  muscular  work,  or  only  moderate  exercise,  is  able 
to  digest  quite  large  amounts  of  fat.     It  has  been  generally 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  393 

belieVed  that  about  200  grams  of  fat  per  day  is  as  much  as  can 
be  digested  and  absorbed,  though  individual  instances  of  good 
utilization  of  larger  amounts  might  be  cited. 

Considerable  variations  in  the  amount  of  fat  eaten  do  not 
necessarily  have  any  marked  influence  upon  the  completeness 
with  which  it  is  digested  and  absorbed.  Thus  in  a  series  of 
twelve  digestion  experiments  conducted  by  Milner  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Report  of  the  Storrs  (Connecticut)  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  for  1905  (pages  131-138)  in  which  the 
amounts  of  fat  eaten  per  man  per  day  ranged  from  91  to  186 
grams,  the  coefficients  of  digestion  of  the  fat  varied  only  from 
95.5  to  97.9  per  cent. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  average  consumption  of  fat  is  not 
excessive  and  that  those  who  need  an  especially  abundant  fuel 
supply  can  use  with  advantage  amounts  of  fat  much  greater 
than  the  average,  it  is  probably  also  true  that  many  persons  of 
only  average  activity  and  energy  requirement  are  using  consid- 
erably more  than  the  average  amount  of  butter,  which  as 
already  stated  amounts  to  less  than  an  ounce  per  person  per  day. 
A  consumption  of  one  pound  of  butter  per  person  per  week  is 
more  than  twice  the  average  amount,  but  instances  of  families 
in  which  butter  is  thus  liberally  used  will  doubtless  be  familiar 
to  many  of  the  readers  of  this  book.  In  such  instances,  it  will 
be  well  to  consider  whether  some  of  the  money  spent  for  butter 
might  not  more  wisely  be  expended  for  milk. 

A  pound  of  butter  is  equal  in  energy  value  to  5  quarts  of 
milk,  but  in  view  of  the  proteins  and  ash  constituents  which  the 
milk  contains,  it  would  probably  be  wise  to  consider  that  3 
quarts  of  milk  fully  equal  i  pound  of  butter  as  an  asset  in  the 
dietary,  except  perhaps  in  those  cases  in  which  the  energy  prob- 
lem distinctly  predominates.  To  pay  much  if  any  more  for  a 
pound  of  butter  than  for  3  quarts  of  milk  will  usually  mean 
either  that  an  extravagant  price  is  being  paid  for  butter  or  that 
the  milk  used  is  below  the  quality  which  the  consumer  can 
afford  and  should  demand. 


394  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

If  any  considerable  number  of  consumers  should  decide  to  buy 
less  butter  and  more  milk,  the  diminished  demand  for  butter  and 
increased  demand  for  milk  would  result  in  bringing  to  market 
some  of  the  milk  now  used  for  butter-making.  This  would  not 
appreciably  disturb  agricultural  conditions  and  would  plainly 
tend  toward  a  better  conservation  of  resources  for  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole,  because  under  present  conditions  the 
skimmed  milk  of  the  butter  factories  is  not  generally  utilized 
to  good  advantage.  Economically  therefore  the  making  of 
butter  should,  for  the  most  part,  be  carried  on  in  regions  which 
are  adapted  to  dairy  farming,  but  too  remote  from  cities  and 
towns  to  send  their  milk  to  market,  or  in  districts  in  which  it  is 
feasible  to  make  good  use  of  the  skimmed  milk. 

REFERENCES 
I 

Allen.     Commercial  Organic  Analysis,  Vol.  II. 

Glikin.     Chemie  der  Fette,  Lipoide  und  Wachsarten. 

Hefter.    Technologic  der  Fette  und  Oele. 

Leach,     food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

Leathes.     The  Fats. 

Lewkowitsch.     Chemical  Technology  and  Analysis  of  Oils,  Fats  and  Waxes. 

McKay  and  Larsen.     Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-Making. 

Simmons  and  Mitchell.     Edible  Fats  and  Oils. 

Ubbelohde.     Handbuch  der  Chemie  und  Technologie  der  Oele  und  Fette. 

Wilder.     The  Modern  Packing  House. 

Wiley.     Foods  and  Their  Adulterations. 

Wing.     Milk  and  its  Products. 

II 

Alvord.  Composition  and  Characteristics  of  Butter.  Pennsylvania 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Annual  Report  for  1898,  page  558.' 

Browne.  A  Contribution  to  the  Chemistry  of  Butter  Fat.  Journal  of  the 
Af^erican  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  21,  pages  612-633,  807-827,  975-994 
(1899). 

Cochran.  Butter  and  Butter  Adulterants.  Journal  of  the  Franklin  In- 
stitute, Vol.  147,  page  85  (1899). 


EDIBLE   FATS   AND   OILS  395 

Behrend  and  Wolfs.  Butter  Fats  from  Individual  Cows.  Zeitschrift  fur 
Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  5,  pages  689-719 
(1902). 

ToLMAN  and  Munson.  Olive  Oil  and  its  Substitutes.  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  77 
(1902). 

Crampton.  Composition  of  Process  or  Renovated  Butter.  Journal  of  the 
American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  25,  pages  358-364  (1903). 

Moore.  Experiments  with  Edible  Oils.  Arkansas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Bulletin  78  (1903). 

SwAviNG.  Influence  of  Feeding  Cottonseed  and  Sesame  Meal  on  the  Prop- 
erties of  Butter  Fat.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und 
Genussmittel,  Vol.  6,  pages  97-115  (1903). 

Walker.  Coconuts  and  Coconut  Oil.  Philippine  Journal  of  Science, 
Vol.  I,  pages  58,  117  (1906). 

Amberger.  Influence  of  Food  on  Composition  of  Butter  Fat.  Zeitschrift 
fur  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  13,  pages  614- 
621  (1907). 

GiBBS  and  Agcaoili.  Lard  from  Wild  and  Domestic  Philippine  Hogs  and 
the  Changes  effected  by  Feeding  Copra  Cake.  Philippine  Journal  of 
Science,  Series  A,  Vol.  5,  page  ^s  (iQio)- 

Lindsay,  ct  al.  Effect  of  Feed  on  Butter  Fat.  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  Report  for  1908,  pages  66-110;  Chemical  Ab- 
stracts, Vol.  4,  page  1774  (1910). 

MoHLER,  Washburn,  and  Rogers.  The  Viability  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  in 
Butter.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  26th  Annual  Report,  pages  179-186  (1909). 

Rogers,  Berg,  and  Davis.  The  Temperature  of  Pasteurization  for  Butter 
Making.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  27th  Annual  Report,  pages  307-326  (1910). 

Klein.  The  Olive  Oil  Industry  in  Portugal.  Journal  fiir  Landwirtschaft, 
Vol.  60,  pages  31-73  (1911-1912). 

Marseillaise  Peanut  Oil  Industry.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering 
Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  705-706  (191 1). 

Wesson.  Bleaching  of  Oil  with  Fuller's  Earth.  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  page  126  (191 1). 

Thompson,  et  al.  Normal  Composition  of  American  Creamery  Butter. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Bulletin  149  (191 2). 

Hunziger.  Moisture  Control  of  Butter  (Two  Parts).  Indiana  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletins  159  and  160  (1912). 


396  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Shaw.  A  New  Method  for  Determining  Fat  and  Salt  in  Butler,  especially 
adapted  for  Use  in  Creameries.  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  202  (191 2). 

Wesson.  The  Chemist  and  the  Cottonseed  Oil  Industry  in  America.  Jour- 
nal of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages  64-65  (191 2). 

Ellis.  Hydrogenation  of  Oils.  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering 
Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages  95-106  (1913). 

Rogers,  Berg,  et  al.  Factors  Influencing  the  Change  in  Flavor  of  Storage 
Butter.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Bulletin  162  (1913). 

Rogers  and  Gray.  Influence  of  Acidity  of  Cream  on  Flavor  of  Butter. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Bulletin  114  (1913). 

Stepp.  Indispensability  of  Lipoids  for  Life.  Zeitschrift  fur  Biologie,  Vol. 
59,  pages  366-395  ;  Vol.  62,  pages  405-41?  (1912-1913). 

McCoLLUM  and  Davis.  The  Necessity  of  Certain  Lipins  in  the  Diet  during 
Growth.  Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  15,  pages  167-176  (1913). 

Osborne  and  Mendel.  The  Influence  of  Butter  Fat  on  Growth.  Journal 
of  Biological  Chemistry,  Vol.  16,  pages423-437  (1913) ;  see  also  Volume 
17,  pages  401-408  (1914). 


CHAPTER  XI 

SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY 

The  Cane  Sugar  Industry 

Cane  sugar  or  sucrose,  C12H22O11,  occurs  widely  distributed  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is  found  in  the  fruits  and  juices  of 
many  plants,  usually  mixed  with  more  or  less  of  the  simpler 
sugars,  glucose  (dextrose)  and  fructose  (levulose).  The  separa- 
tion of  the  sucrose  is  commercially  profitable  only  in  the  case  of 
a  plant  whose  juice  is  relatively  rich  in  this  sugar  and  contains 
but  small  proportions  of  other  substances.  Only  two  plants, 
the  sugar  cane  and  the  sugar  beet,  play  an  important  part  in  the 
world's  supply  of  sugar.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the 
juices  of  the  maple  tree  and  of  the  palm  tree  are  relatively  small 
industries  whose  products  enter  but  little  into  the  world's  sugar 
trade.  We  shall  therefore  confine  our  study  of  the  technology 
of  the  industry  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  cane  or  the 
beet.  The  accounts  which  follow  are  very  largely  taken  from 
lectures  delivered  at  Columbia  University  during  191 1  to  19 14 
by  Dr.  C.  A.  Browne  and  Dr.  W.  D.  Home. 

Production  of  raw  sugar  from  sugar  cane.'  The  sugar  cane, 
which  is  the  oldest  and  best  known  sugar-producing  plant,  grows 
only  in  tropical  and  semitropical  countries;  it  resembles  in 
many  ways  the  Indian  corn,  producing  a  jointed  stalk  varying 
from  6  to  12  feet  or  even  more  in  length.  The  native  home  of 
the  cane  is  India,  and  it  is  mentioned  frequently  in  the  old  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindoos  and  in  ancient  Chinese  writings  centuries 
before  Christ.  The  Greek  soldiers  of  Alexander  the  Great  saw 
*  Browne,  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  April,  191 1,  and  January,  1913. 
397 


398 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND    CONFECTIONERY  399 

the  sugar  cane  growing  in  India  at  the  time  of  his  conquest,  and 
brought  back  stories  of  the  wonderful  reed  which  yielded  a  juice 
sweeter  than  honey.  The  Persians  and  Arabs  carried  the  culti- 
vation of  the  sugar  cane  westward,  and  we  find  that  sugar  was 
both  grown  and  refined  in  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
in  the  tenth  century  a.d.  The  Crusaders  found  sugar  cane  and 
sugar  factories  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  brought  back  samples 
of  the  product  upon  their  return  from  the  East.  The  Saracens 
introduced  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  into  Sicily  and  the 
Moors  into  Spain  ;  the  Spaniards  in  their  turn  carried  the  sugar 
cane  with  them  to  the  New  World  during  their  voyages  of  dis- 
covery and  colonization  ;  and  so  the  sugar  cane  was  carried  from 
its  original_Jiome  in  India  throughout  the  entire  tropical  and 
semi-tropical  world. 

At  present  the  countries  which  lead  in  the  production  of  sugar 
from  cane  are  British  India,  Cuba,  Java,  and  the  United  States, 
including  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 

The  cane  is  propagated  by  planting  in  plowed  furrows  the 
tops  of  the  canes  of  the  preceding  crop.  When  the  sprouts  of 
young  cane  appear  above  ground,  the  fields  are  cultivated  until 
the  growth  of  the  cane  is  well  started  or  until  the  rainy  season 
begins,  and  then  left  to  grow  for  varying  lengths  of  time  depend- 
ing upon  the  climatic  conditions  and  custom  of  the  locality.  In 
Louisiana  the  whole  period  of  growth  is  considerably  less  than  a 
year ;  in  Hawaii  the  cane  is  often  allowed  to  grow  for  practically 
two  years. 

The  .sugar  cane,  when  the  crop  is  ready,  is  harvested  by  cutting 
off  the  stalk  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible,  trimming  off  the 
green  tops,  and  stripping  off  the  leaves  (Figs.  27  and  28).  These 
and  the  other  agricultural  operations  of  planting,  fertilizing,  and 
cultivating  require  a  large  amount  of  labor,  the  expense  for  which 
makes  up  about  three  fourths  of  the  cost  of  the  raw  sugar,  the 
remaining  one  fourth  being  due  to  the  expense  of  manufacture. 

The  composition  of  the  stalks  and  the  expressed  juice  of  the 


40O 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY 


401 


sugar  cane  vary  considerably.  The  general  range  of  the  differ- 
ent constituents  as  compiled  from  analyses  made  in  different 
countries  is  given  in  the  following  table  (Table  49) : 

Table  49.    Composition  of  "Sugar  Cane  and  its  Juice  (Browne) 


Whole  Cane 

Cane  Juice 

Water      .     .    ' 

Per  cent 

67-75 
33-25 

10-15 
II-16 

o-S-i-S 
0.5-1.0 
0.4-0.6 
0.2-0.5 
0.4 

Per  cent 
80-86 

Dry  substance 

Fiber  (cellulose,  etc.) 

Sucrose 

Invert  sugar      

Ash 

Nitrogenous  substances   .... 

G  jms,  acids,  etc 

Wax  and  fat 

20-14 

12-18 
0.5-2.0 
0.4-0.8 
0.1-0.4 
0.3-0.6 
0.2 

Individual  cases  may  show  variations  above  or  below  these 
figures. 

The  sugar  cane  after  it  is  hauled  to  the  factory  is  first  passed  \ 
through  mills  to  remove  the  juice  (Fig.  29) .  The  cane  mills  are 
of  all  kinds  and  tyjjes,  and  range  from  the  crude  ox-driven  mills 
employed  in  the  Philippines  and  other  primitive  countries,  to  the 
high-power,  steam-driven  hydraulic  nine-  and  twelve-roller 
mills  employed  in  Cuba,  Java,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  Louisiana, 
and  other  countries  where  the  most  modern  machinery  is  used. 
In  the  best-equipped  factories  the  cane  is  delivered  by  an  end- 
less carrier  to  huge  corrugated  crushers,  which  reduce  the  stalks 
to  a  thick  blanket  of  pulpy  fiber,  removing  at  the  same  time  some 
50  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  of  the  juice.  The  crushed  stalks  pass 
next  through  a  mill  of  3  rollers,  where  still  more  of  the  juice  is 
removed;  and  then  through  a  second,  third,  and  sometimes  a 
fourth  set  of  such  rollers,  the  hydraulic  pressure  upon  the  rollers 
being  increased  at  each  mill  in  order  to  remove  more  and  more  of 
2  D 


402 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  403 

the  juice.  It  is  also  customary  to  wet  the  pulp  with  a  thin 
spray  of  water  between  the  sets  of  rollers,  the  water  thus  soaked/ 
up  facilitating  the  removal  of  the  residual  sugar  by  the  suc-V 
ceeding  roller.  This  process  of  wetting,  or  maceration,  as  it  is 
called,  is  highly  important,  but  requires  to  be  carefully  con- 
trolled ;  the  water  added  must  of  course  be  afterwards  evapo- 
rated, and  the  question  which  the  chemist  must  decide  js  when 
the_cost  of  evaporation  begins  to  exceed  the  value  of  the  extra 
sugar  recovered.  The  quantity  of  water  used  for  wetting  the 
fiber  is  usually  about  15  per  cent,  i.e.  15  parts  of  water  per  100 
parts  of  normal  undiluted  juice,  although  25  per  cent  and  more  is 
sometimes  used.  With  15  per  cent  maceration  about  90  per  cent 
of  the  sugar  in  the  cane  is  extracted  in  the  juice;  with  25  per 
cent  maceration  over  95  per  cent  of  the  sugar  may  be  extracted. 
The  residue  of  cane  fiber  as  it  leaves  the  last  mill  contains  about 
45  to  50  per  cent  moisture  and  from  3  to  5  per  cent  sugar,  i.e. 
from  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  original  sugar  in  the  cane.  This 
residue  of  fiber  is  called  "  bagasse  "  and  is  burned  under  the 
boilers ;  it  constitutes  the  chief,  and  in  some  countries  the  only, 
supply  of  fuel  for  operating  the  sugar  factory. 

The  polarization  ^  and  "  purity  "  of  the  raw  juice  are  the  first   / 
important  tactors  to  be  determined  in  the  chemical  control  of  (  jj 
a  cane  sugar  factory.     The  "  polarization  "  of  the  juice  will  give  V_^ 
the  approximate  sugar  content ;  the  dissolved  solid^W  the  juice 
are  estimated  by  means  of  a  floating  hydrometer  called  a  Brix 
spindle.     The  polarization  of  the  juice  multiplied  by  loo  and 
divided  by  the  reading  of  the  Brix  spindle  gives  the  "  purity  " 
of  the  juice.     Good  cane  juices  run  over  90  per  cent  purity, 
juices  running  from  85  to  90  per  cent  purity  are  fair,  and  from 
8d  to  85  per  cent  medium.     Juices  with  a  purity  below  80  per 
cent  are  poor  and  very  unsatisfactory  to  worlci 

'  The  term  "polarization"  implies  the  estimation  of  sugar  by  means  of  the  polar- 
iscope;  see,  for  example,  Methods  of  Organic  Analysis,  Revised  Edition,  pages 
79-icx). 


404 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


The  second  step  in  the  manufacture  of  cane  sugar  is  the 
clarification  or  purification  of  the  raw  juice.  The  best  clarifying 
agent  and  the  one  that  has  been  used  from  time  immemorial  is 
lime. 

Many  methods  of  using  lime  are  practiced,  only  one  of  which 
need  be  described  here.     Cane  juice  as  it  comes  from  the  mill 


0  V  ^   ^iG.  30. — ■Clarifying  cane  juice  (American  Photo  Co.,  Havana). 

^ 

is  slightly  acid.  One  method  of  clarification  is  to  neutralize 
this  free  acid  of  the  juice  by  adding  lime  to  slight  alkalinity, 
and  then  to  heat  to  boiling  (Fig.  30).  The  lime  combines  with 
the  organic  acids  and  phosphoric  acid  of  the  juice,  and  the  heat 
coagulates  the  proteins  present ;  a  thick  scum  of  impurities  rises 
to  the  surface,  which  is  skimmed  off  and  the  hot  juice  is  run  into 
settling  tanks,  when  the  suspended  impurities  settle  out,  or,  more 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY 


405 


often  the  juice  is  passed  through  filter  presses  (Fig.  31),  and  the 
impurities  removed  in  this  way.  The  residue  of  impurities, 
called  "  filter  press  cake,"  contains  the  phosphates  and  nitrog- 
enous matters  of  the  juice  and  is  returned  to  the  canefields  as  a 
fertilizer. 

In  many  factories  the  cane  juice  is  sulphured  before  liming ; 
sulphur  dioxide,  produced  by  burning  sulphur,  is  led  into  the 


Fig.  31.  —  Filter  presses  in  sugar  factory  (American  Photo  Co.,  Havana). 


juice  to  a  certain  point  of  acidity ;  the  free  acid  is  then  neutral- 
ized with  lime  and  the  juice  heated  as  first  described.  The 
sulphurous  acid  has  a  favorable  bleaching  effect  upon  the  juice 
and  the  mechanical  separation  of  the  impurities  is  greatly  facili- 
tated by  its  action.  Objections  against  its  employment  are  the 
increase  in  scale  (mostly  calcium  sulphate)  which  forms  upon  the 


4o6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

tubes  of  the  evaporators  and  the  contamination  of  the  molasses 
with  sulphites.  In  some  factories  phosphoric  acid  is  used  with 
the  lime. 

In  some  countries,  notably  in  T^va.  lime  is  added  to  the  juice 
to  strong  alkalinity  and  the  excess  of  lime  then  removed  By" 
i^Jjjieans  oT~carb"bii  dioxide.     This  process  of  clarification,  called 
JVcarbonatation,  is  the  only  one  used  in  beet  sugar  manufacture. 
yy      It  works  well  with  cane  juices  when  but  little  invert  sugar  is 
y  present.     If  the  latter  occurs  in  large  amounts,  tHe  lime  forms 

c     dark-colored   soluble  compounds  which  not  only  give  a  dark 
^v\  colored  sugar  but  interfere  seriously  with  the  work  of  evapora- 
tion  and  crystallization.     Such  juices  are  said  to  be  lime-burnt, 
he  tendency  at  present  in  cane  sugar  manufacture  is  against 
carbonatation  and  all  other  methods  of  strongly  alkaline  clari- 
fication. 

The  third  process  in  the  manufacture  of  cane  sugar  is  that  of 
evaporation.  In  primitive  countries  and  out-of-the-way  planta- 
tions evaporation  is  carried  but  over  the  direct  fire  in  open  pans 
or  kettles.  The  juice  is  either  boiled  down  in  one  single  kettle 
or  passed  through  a  train  of  pans ;  when  crystallization  of  the 
sugar  has  begun,  great  care  must  be  exercised  that  the  mass  be 
kept  in  constant  motion ;  otherwise  there  will  be  burning  and 
caramelization  next  to  the  surface  of  the  evaporator.  Such 
caramelization  is  in  fact  unavoidable,  and  all  open  kettle  sugars 
are  characterized  by  a  dark  color  and  by  an  agreeable  aromatic 
taste  which  is  preferred  by  many  to  that  of  the  pure  refined 
sugars.  In  some  countries  the  cane  juice  after  evaporating  to  a 
thick,  pasty  mass  is  allowed  to  cool  and  solidify,  just  as  molasses 
candy  hardens  after  cooling.  This  solidified  mass  is  called 
concrete  sugar  and  is  ground  up  in  mills  and  marketed  as  a  coarse 
lumpy  ^ugar  of  very  uneven  composition.  This  concrete  sugar 
contains  of  course  all  the  molasses  with  the  soluble  impurities  of 
the  juice.  Such  sugar  constitutes  at  present  almost  the  sole 
output  of  the  Philippine  Islands.     It  is  shipped  to  this  country 


SUGARS,  SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY 


407 


4o8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

in  mats  weighing  about  50  pounds  and  comes  in  3  grades  which 
contain  all  the  way  from  80  per  cent  to  about  90  per  cent  pure 
sucrose. 

In  other  primitive  countries,  especially  in  parts  of  South 
America,  the  juice  is  not  evaporated  to  concrete,  but  only  to  the 
consistency  of  a  thick  mush ;  this  mush  is  run  into  hogsheads 
having  a  fine  perforated  bottom  through  which  the  molasses,  or 
mother  liquor  surrounding  the  crystals  of  sugar,  percolates. 
When  as  much  as  possible  of  the  molasses  has  drained  away,  the 
residue  of  sugar  is  removed  and  sold  as  muscovado  sugar.  This 
is  purer  than  concrete  sugar  and  polarizes  sometimes  as  high  as 
92  per  cent.  It  js  usually  quite  moist  and  for  this  reason  very 
liable  to  deteriorate. 

In  the  open  kettle  process  of  evaporation  there  is  always 
considerable  loss  of  sugar  due  to  caramelization  and  inversion 
caused  by  the  high  temperature  of  heating,  which  may  be  from 
20  to  30°  F.  above  the  boiling  point  of  water.  To  avoid  these 
losses  all  modern  sugar  factories  employ  vacuum  evaporators 
which  allow  evaporation  to  proceed  at  a  temperature  much 
below  the  boiling  point  of  water  and  at  the  same  time  permit  the 
utilization  of  waste  steam  from  the  exhaust  of  the  engines  and 
other  points  about  the  factory.  Vacuum  evaporators  are 
manufactured  in  many  different  forms,  and  are  arranged  usually 
in  a  series  of  2,  3,  or  4,  sometimes  even  as  high  as  5  or  6,  the 
combination  being  called  double,  triple,  quadruple,  quintuple, 
or  sextuple  effects.  In  the  first  vessel  of  an  effect,  a  lower 
vacuum  is  maintained  than  in  the  second,  a  lower  in  the  second 
than  in  the  third,  and  so  on,  the  temperature  of  boiling  for  each 
succeeding  vessel  is  thus  progressively  reduced.  Figure  3  2  shows 
the  general  arrangement  of  a  triple  effect.  The  steam  which  is 
evapora^^ed  from  the  juice  in  the  first  vessel  (or  "  body  ")  goes  to 
heat  the  coils  of  the  second,  the  steam  from  the  second  vessel  goes 
to  heat  the  coils  of  the  third,  the  reduction  in  temperature  of 
the  steam  for  each  vessel  being  of  course  counterbalanced  by  the 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  409 

greater  vacuum  and  lower  temperatures  necessary  for  boiling. 
With  a  long  series  of  vessels,  as  in  a  quadruple,  quintuple,  or 
sextuple  effect,  the  thin  juice  in  the  first  body  may  be  boiled 
under  atmospheric  pressure  or  even  at  a  few  pounds  above  this ; 
this  is  necessary  in  order  to  get  a  high  enough  temperature  to 
carry  sufficient  heat  through  to  the  last  evaporator.     The  sub- 


FiG.  33.  —  Vacuum  pans  in  sugar  factory.     Operator  in  foreground  using  "  proof 
stick  "  to  withdraw  test  portion  of  contents  (American  Photo  Co.,  Havana). 

ject  of  multiple  evaporation  is  a  science  in  itself,  and  exhaustive 
treatises  have  been  written  upon  this  one  single  phase  of  sugar 
manufacture. 

After  the  clarified  juice  has  been  evaporated  to  a  sirup  we 
come  to  the  fourth  stage  of  the  process  of  modern  sugar  making, 
the  graining  or  crystallizing  of  the  sugar.  This  is  accomplished 
in  a  vacuum  pan  (Fig.  33)  which  is  operated  in  much  the  same 
way  as  one  of  the  vessels  of  an  effect ;  in  the  case  of  the  vacuum 


4IO  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

pan,  and  the  same  is  true  with  many  other  effects,  the  process  is 
assisted  by  connecting  the  outlet  with  a  vertical  condensing 
column  34  feet  or  more  high  (often  extending  above  the  roof,  as 
may  be  seen  in  Figs.  35  and  36  beyond).  A  stream  of  cold 
water  flows  through  the  column,  and  this  serves  both  by  rapid 
condensation  of  the  steam  and  by  the  barometric  pull  of  its 
column  of  liquid  to  maintain  a  high  degree  of  vacuum. 

A  charge  of  sirup  is  first  drawn  into  the  vacuum  pan ;  this 
sirup  as  it  leaves  the  evaporators  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
1.25  (or  about  50  per  cent  solids)  and  is  boiled  down  in  the 
vacuum  pan  to  a  specific  gravity  of  1.50  or  about  90  per  cent 
solids.  The  ebullition  in  the  vacuum  pan  is  violent  and  unless 
the  sugar  boiler  is  careful  some  of  the  sirup  may  be  carried  over 
with  the  vapor  into  the  condenser;  this  is  called  entrainment 
and  is  a  source  of  frequent  losses  in  sugar  manufacture.  In  all 
modern  sugar  factories  the  chemist  makes  constant  examination 
of  the  condensation  water,  so  that  any  loss  due  to  this  cause 
may  be  promptly  detected  and  stopped. 

The  handling  of  the  vacuum  pan  requires  more  skill  than  any 
other  operation  of  the  sugar  house ;  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
entrainment  and  care  must  be  taken  to  build  up  crystals  of 
uniform  grain  or  size.  The  usual  practice  is  to  boil  down  the 
first  charge  of  sirup  to  what  is  called  "  string  proof,"  i.e.  to  the 
point  when  a  few  drops  of  sirup  withdrawn  from  the  pan  will 
draw  out  between  the  fingers  in  fine  strings  or  threads.  When 
this  point  is  reached,  a  large  charge  of  fresh  cold  sirup  is  drawn 
into  the  pan,  the  sudden  cooling  of  the  supersaturated  contents 
starting  the  formation  of  innumerable  fine  crystals.  These 
first  crystals  constitute  the  foundation  so  to  speak  of  all  the 
sugars  obtained  in  a  given  boiling  or  strike  of  the  pan.  The  boiler 
aims  tp  build  up  these  crystals  without  forming  new  ones ;  he 
aims  fro'm  now  on  to  avoid  supersaturation  and  to  avoid  sudden 
chilling  through  drawing  in  too  much  sirup  at  one  time.  He 
controls  his  process  by  drawing  out  samples  every  few  minutes 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  41 1 

and  examining  these  upon  glass  against  a  light ;  if  he  sees  fine 
new  crystals  appearing  among  the  old  ones,  he  reduces  the  vacuum 
a  little,  thus  raising  the  temperature  and  dissolving  this  false 
grain  as  the  fine  crystals  are  called.  By  skillful  manipulation, 
which  only  comes  with  long  practice  and  experience,  the  sugar 
boiler  is  able  to  build  up  his  crystals  to  any  desired  size.   The 


Fig.  34.  — •  Horizontal  cylindrical  crystallizers  with  mixing  tank  and 
centrifugals  beneath  (American  Photo  Co.,  Havana). 

usual  practice  is  a  crystal  about  the  size  of  ordinary  granulated 
sugar ;  in  certain  localities,  however,  a  large  crystal  is  favored, 
as,  for  example,  in  Peru,  where  the  sugar  is  boiled  slowly  and  for 
a  long  time,  thus  building  up  a  very  large  grain.  The  attach- 
ment for  withdrawing  samples  of  sirup  from  the  vacuum  pan  is 
called  the  "  proof  stick." 
When  the  vacuum  pan  is  filled  with  a  thick  magma  of  sugar 


412  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

crystals,  of  about  the  consistency  of  mortar,  the  steam  is  shut 
off,  air  is  admitted,  the  bottom  of  the  pan  opened,  and  the  entire 
contents  dumped  into  a  mixer,  which  keeps  the  mass  in  slow 
movement  by  means  of  revolving  arms.  This  mixer  is  situated 
over  a  row  of  centrifugal  machines ;  the  mass  of  crystals  (some- 
times called  masse  cuite  from  the  French,  or  Fiillmass  from  the 
German)  is  drawn  off  gradually  in  successive  charges  into  the 
centrifugals.  The  inner  walls  of  the  latter  are  lined  with  fine 
brass  meshing  and  as  the  drums  are  rotated  the  masse  cuite  is 
whirled  against  the  meshing,  which  retains  the  sugar  but  allows 
the  molasses  to  pass  through.  After  spinning  for  a  few  minutes 
until  as  much  of  the  molasses  is  removed  as  possible,  the  revolv- 
ing mass  of  sugar  may  be  sprayed  with  a  fine  spray  of  water  or  a 
jet  of  steam  in  order  to  remove  more  of  the  film  of  molasses 
which  remains  adhering  to  the  crystals ;  the  amount  of  spraying 
depends  upon  the  whiteness  of  sugar  desired.  In  Louisiana  a 
very  pure,  white  sugar  is  made  by  spraying  with  several  sprink- 
lings of  water ;  such  sugar  is  over  99  per  cent  pure  sucrose,  the 
remainder  being  mostly  moisture.  In  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 
they  aim  to  make  a  96  per  cent  sugar.  Inlffawaii  and  Java 
a  sugar  testing  about  97  per  cent  is  desired.  Spraying  will,  of 
course,  dissolve  some  of  the  sugar,  so  that  the  process  is  one 
which  must  be  carefully  controlled. 

When  the  molasses  has  been  removed  as  completely  as  pos- 
sible, the  centrifugals  are  stopped  and  the  sugar  emptied  through 
the  bottom  of  the  drum  into  a  conveyor,  by  which  it  is  carried  to 
the  bagging  department,  where  it  is  prepared  for  shipment.  The 
raw  sugar  from  the  centrifugal  contains  considerable  moisture, 
and  in  some  countries  the  sugar  is  dried  in  revolving  drums 
before  being  bagged.  This  drying  is  advantageous  for  two 
reasons :  first,  the  excess  moisture  is  removed,  thus  saving  the 
cost  of  transporting  water;  and,  second,  the  sugar  is  sterilized 
and  protected  against  the  attacks  of  ferments  and  bacteria. 
The  drying  of  raw  sugar  is  not  practiced  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY 


413 


414  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

or  Louisiana,  but  is  carried  out  in  Java  and  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  where  the  sugar  has  to  be  shipped  long  distances  for 
refining.  The  storage  of  undried  raw  sugar  for  long  periods  of 
time  is  a  risky  operation,  as  many  speculators  in  sugar  have 
found  to  their  cost. 

The  sugar  which  is  made  from  the  pure  juice  of  the  cane  is 
called  "  first  sugar  "  and  the  molasses  drained  from  this  sugar 
is  called  "  first  molasses."  The  latter  still  contains  a  large 
amount  of  sucrose,  and  various  processes  are  used  to  recover  as 
much  of  this  as  will  crystallize.  The  first  molasses  is  sometimes 
boiled  down  again  in  the  vacuum  pan  and  a  second  crop  of  sugar 
crystals  obtained;  this  is  the  second  sugar  and  the  molasses 
obtained  from  this  the  second  molasses.  The  second  molasses 
may  be  boiled  over  again  and  a  third  sugar  obtained,  the  molasses 
from  which  is  the  third  or  final  molasses.  Of  course,  as  the  sugar 
is  removed  the  impurities  become  more  and  more  concentrated 
in  the  molasses,  until  finally  a  thick  stringy  mass  is  obtained 
which  will  no  longer  crystallize.  Such  a  molasses  may  still 
contain,  however,  30  per  cent  sucrose ;  there  is  also  present 
about  30  per  cent  invert  sugar,  8  to  10  per  cent  of  ash, 
and  8  to  10  per  cent  of  gums,  organic  acids,  amino  com- 
pounds, etc. 

The  tendency  of  modern  methods  in  cane  sugar  manufacture 
is  against  the  repeated  boiling  of  molasses,  and  the  aim  is  to  get 
as  much  sugar  as  possible  in  one  operation.  Many  processes 
have  been  devised  to  attain  this  end.  One  method  is  to  take 
the  molasses  from  the  first  strike  of  sugar,  draw  this  into  the 
vacuum  pan  with  the  sirup  for  the  succeeding  strike,  and  boil 
the  two  down  together.  The  masse  cuite  from  this  mixture  is 
then  run  while  still  hot  into  large  tanks,  called  crystallizers 
(Fig.  34),  where  it  is  kept  in  slow  motion  by  means  of  revolving 
arms;  tis  the  mass  cools  and  thickens  more  molasses  is  drawn 
to  keep  the  proper  degree  of  fluidity.  When  no  more  sugar  will 
crystaUize,  as  determined  by  analysis  of  samples,  the  contents 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY 


415 


41 6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

of  the  crystallizer  are  spun  out  in  centrifugals  and  the  molasses 
withdrawn  from  the  factory. 

Several  of  the  features  above  described  are  shown  in  Fig.  35. 
In  the  foreground  at  the  left  are  the  large  wheels  of  the  cane 
mill ;  at  the  right  is  the  conveyor  which  carries  away  the  bagasse. 
In  the  background  a  multiple  effect  evaporator  may  be  seen 
at  the  center,  while  slightly  to  the  left  is  the  condensing  column, 
which  extends  through  the  roof.  At  the  top  of  each  of  the  con- 
densing columns  of  the  factory  in  which  these  photographs  were 
taken  is  a  small  covered  platform  easily  seen  above  the  roofs  in 
Fig.  36. 

Sugar  Refining  * 

The  process  of  manufacture  described  above  yields  "  raw 
sugar,"  which  is  usually  from  95  to  98  per  cent  pure.  The  re- 
moval of  the  remaining  impurities  constitutes  the  "  refining  " 
of  the  sugar  and  is  usually  carried  on  in  places  where  fuel  is 
more  abundant  than  in  the  tropical  countries  where  the  sugar 
cane  is  chiefly  cultivated,  since  about  25  pounds  of  coal  are  con- 
sumed in  refining  100  pounds  of  sugar.  The  difference  in  price 
between  raw  and  refined  sugar  is  usually  0.7  to  0.9  cent  per 
pound  and  the  cost  of  refining  is  estimated  at  0.6  to  0.65  cent  per 
pound,  leaving  a  margin  of  profit  so  small  that  it  is  necessary 
for  the  operation  to  be  conducted  on  a  large  scale  in  order  to 
make  it  remunerative.  In  ^  the  United  States  the  industry 
is  carried  on  in  a  relatively  small  number  of  large  establish- 
ments in  or  near  the  principal  ports  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts. 

Nearly  all  of  the  three  million  tons  of  sugar  brought  into  the 
United  States^  annually  is  refined  in  about  20  establishments. 
Thus  the  average  output  of  the  refineries  now  in  operation  is 

*  Home' School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  April,  191 1. 

'At  present  (1913-1914)  about  three  fourths  of  the  sugar  used  in  the  United 
States  is  imported ;  that  produced  in  the  country  (about  one  fourth)  is  for  the  most 
part  refined  at  the  point  of  production. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  417 

about  1,000,000  pounds  of  sugar  per  day  each,  some  establish- 
ments having  a  much  larger  output  than  this. 

In  principle  the  refining  process  consists  in  washing  off  as 
much  as  is  practicable  of  the  molasses  which  adheres  to  the 
crystals  of  raw  sugar,  then  dissolving  the  crystals,  purifying 
and  decolorizing  the  solution  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  and 
recovering  the  sugar  in  a  purified  state  by  recrystallization. 
While  the  process  is  simple  in  principle,  the  large  scale  upon 
which  it  must  be  carried  out  and  the  extreme  precautions  neces- 
sary to  guard  against  apparently  small  losses  if  the  industry  is 
to  be  economically  successful  require  elaborate  equipment  and 
constant  chemical  control. 

As  the  sugar,  either  in  granular  form  or  in  solution,  is  passed 
through  a  number  of  operations  in  a  continuous  stream,  it  is 
found  advantageous  to  build  the  refineries  several  stories  high 
so  that  after  the  first  lifting  of  the  material  its  transportation 
from  place  to  place  for  the  successive  steps  of  the  processes 
may  be  effected  chiefly  by  gravity. 

The  raw  sugar  is  usually  carried  to  the  top  of  the  building  by 
means  of  a  bucket  elevator  and  washed  by  mixing  with  a  small 
amount  of  sugar  sirup  and  then  separating  in  centrifugals,  the 
sugar  in  the  centrifugal  being  sometimes  sprinkled  with  a  little' 
water  for  further  purification. 

After  this  washing  the  sugar  usually  has  a  purity  of  about] 
99,  i.e.  of  the  total  solids  in  the  moist  sugar  about  99  per  cent 
is  sucrose. 

The  sugar  is  then  dissolved  in  hot  water,  this  step  being  \ 
technically    known    as   melting   the   sugar.     The    "  melting "  I 
process  is  accomplished  by  running  the  sugar  into  water  con-  j 
tained  in  steam-heated  pans,  the  proportions  and  the  heating ; 
being  so  regulated  as  to  obtain  a  solution  of  28  to  30°  Baume 
and  a  temperature  of  150°  to  170°  F.     A  higher  temperature 
might  result  in  darkening  the  solution  by  slight  decomposition 
of  some  of  its  constituents. 


4l8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

;  The  hot  solution  then  goes  to  the  blowups  for  clarification, 
which  is  accomplished  by  adding  a  very  small  amount  of  acid 
jcalcium  phosphate  and  then  enough  milk  of  lime  to  make  the 
/mixture  neutral  or  very  faintly  alkaline.  The  precipitate  thus 
1  formed  carries  down  such  impurities  as  gums  and  proteins,  as 
well  as  suspended  particles,  and  also  removes  a  part  of  the  color- 
ing matter.  The  precipitate  is  removed  by  running  the  liquid 
*  through  Taylor  filters,  which  consist  of  twilled  cotton  bags  about 
six  feet  long  encased  in  strong,  coarse-meshed  hempen  sheaths. 
A  single  filter  box  may  contain  400  or  more  of  these  bags,  each 
attached  to  the  filter  head  by  means  of  a  metal  bell  and  socket. 
The  bags  soon  become  clogged  and  so  require  frequent  changing 
and  washing ;  the  wash  water  must  be  utilized  in  such  ways  as 
to  avoid  either  a  loss  of  sugar  or  a  waste  of  fuel  in  evaporating 
more  water  than  is  necessary. 

The  filtrate  from  the  bags  is  clear  but  not  colorless.  Most  of 
the  color  is  removed  from  this  filtrate  by  passing  it  through 
boneblack  filters.  These  are  large,  strong  iron  cylinders,  often 
10  feet  in  diameter  and  20  to  30  feet  high,  filled  with  boneblack 
through  which  the  sugar  solution  flows  very  slowly,  usually 
at  about  the  rate  of  one  foot  per  hour.  On  account  of  the  im- 
mense amounts  of  boneblack  required  in  a  modern  refinery,  this 
part  of  the  process  requires  very  careful  control  in  order  to  use 
the  boneblack  or  "  char  "  as  economically  as  possible.  Freshly 
charred  boneblack  removes  the  color  from  the  sugar  solution 
almost  completely,  but  with  accumulation  of  impurities  in  the 
pores  of  the  char  it  naturally  becomes  less  effective  until  finally 
the  filtrate  shows  so  much  color  that  it  must  be  re-treated  and 
the  boneblack  must  be  washed  and  sent  to  the  "  char  house  " 
for  rebuming.  Every  reburning  or  "  revivifying  "  leaves  the 
pores  of  the  boneblack  somewhat  clogged  by  the  added  carbon 
from  tile  absorbed  impurities,  so  that  after  10  or  12  reburnings 
it  is  no  longer  economical  to  use.  In  the  Weinrich  oxidizing 
revivifier  the  reburning  is  carried  out  with  a  limited  supply 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  419 

of  air  designed  to  burn  out  the  carbon  of  the  impurities  but  not 
that  of  the  original  char,  and  thus  to  prolong  the  usefulness  of 
the  boneblack. 

The  sugar  solution  which  has  passed  the  boneblack  filter,  and 
is  botl\  clear  and  practically  colorless,  is  evaporated  in  vacuum 
pans  of  1000  to  2000  cubic  feet  capacity,  wherein  the  sugar 
solution  is  "  boiled  to  grain  "  and  concentrated  to  a  low  water 
content.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  satisfactorily  a  vacuum 
is  first  created  in  the  pan,  some  sugar  solution  admitted,  and 
steam  then  passed  through  the  heating  coils  and  the  solution 
concentrated  until  supersaturated.  The  exact  point  to  which 
the  concentration  should  be  carried  is  determined  by  an  ex- 
perienced workman,  who  withdraws  samples  from  the  pan  by 
means  of  a  "  proof  stick,"  which  is  a  long  brass  rod  sliding 
through  an  air-tight  fitting  in  the  side  of  the  pan  and  carrying 
a  cup-like  depression  by  means  of  which  a  small  sample  of  the 
liquid  in  the  pan  can  be  removed  without  disturbing  the  vacuum. 
The  test  portion  thus  withdrawn  from  the  pan  is  examined 
by  drawing  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and,  when  the 
exact  degree  of  viscosity  necessary  to  insure  the  immediate 
production  of  "  grain  "  is  found,  more  of  the  sugar  solution  is 
admitted  to  the  pan,  thus  chilling  its  contents  and  starting  the 
crystallization,  which  is  then  continued  as  in  the  corresponding 
operation  of  raw  sugar  production  described  above,  until  the 
pan  is  charged  with  a  magma  of  crystals  and  mother  liquor, 
which  is  then  dropped  into  the  mixer  on  the  floor  below. 

In  the  mixer  or  crystallizer  the  mass  is  thoroughly  stirred 
while  cooling  and  is  then  allowed  to  fall  into  the  centrifugals, 
where  the  mother  liquor,  usually  known  as  refinery  sirup  rather 
than  molasses,  is  thrown  out  through  the  perforated  walls  of 
the  rotating  drum,  leaving  the  mass  of  crystals,  which  is  sprayed 
lightly  with  water  for  the  further  removal  of  the  sirup,  and 
usually  with  a  solution  of  ultramarine  or  "  permitted  "  blue 
dyestuff  in  order  to  offset  the  tendency  toward  a  slightly  yel- 


420  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

lowish  color  due  to  the  very  minute  trace  of  mother  liquor 
which  still  adheres  to  the  crystals. 

The  washed  sugar  from  the  centrifugals  is  either  barreled 
directly  as  "  confectioner's  sugar,"  pressed  into  cubical  or  domino 
form,  or  sent  to  the  granulator  to  be  made  into  the  ordinary 
granulated  sugar  of  commerce. 

The  granulator  is  a  long  inclined  revolving  cylinder  heated 
by  a  current  of  hot  air  and  provided  with  paddles  to  keep  the 
sugar  stirred  and  screens  to  separate  the  crystals  into  standard 
sizes.  After  granulation  and  sifting  the  sugar  is  barreled  and 
sent  into  commerce. 

The  Beet  Sugar  Industry 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  Margraf  suc- 
ceeded in  separating  about  6  per  cent  of  sugar  from  beets,  and 
later  (1769)  Archard  in  Austria  established  the  first  beet  sugar 
factory;  but  the  beet  sugar  industry  first  became  of  commercial 
importance  when  the  European  supply  of  imported  sugar  was 
shut  off  by  the  blockade  established  during  the  Napoleonic 
war.  The  industry  is  commonly  considered  as  dating  from 
about  1810. 

At  about  this  same  time  the  polariscope  was  developed  into 
a  practicable  apparatus  for  determining  sugar,  and  it  became 
possible  to  test  individual  sugar  beets,  and  plant  for  seed  the 
ones  of  highest  sugar  content.  By  breeding  systematically 
with  constant  chemical  control,  the  average  sugar  content  of 
the  beet  has  been  more  than  doubled,  beets  showing  16  to  18 
per  cent  of  sugar  being  now  not  uncommon,  while  in  some  cases 
from  20  to  24  per  cent  of  sugar  has  been  found.  The  sugar  beet 
thrives  in  temperate  climates.  For  the  year  1912-1913  the 
countries  showing  largest  production  of  sugar  from  beets  were 
(in  ordef)  :  (i)  Germany,  (2)  Austria,  (3)  Russia,  (4)  France, 
(5)  the  United  States. 

Beets  of  medium  size  are  usually  of  better  quality  than  large 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY 


421 


ones.     The  average  composition  of  the  sugar  beet  and  its  juice 
is  given  by  Browne  as  follows  (Table  50) : 

Table  50.  Composition  of  Sugar  Beet  and  rrs  Juice  (Browne) 


Water 

Dry  substance     .     .     . 

Fiber  (cellulose,  etc.)     . 

Sucrose      

Invert  sugar  .  .  .  . 
Ash  (salts)  .  .  .  . 
Nitrogenous  substances 
Gums,  acids,  etc.  .  . 
Wax,  fat,  etc.       .     .     . 


Sugar  Beet 

Sugar  Beet  Juice 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

75-85 

78-84 

15-25 

16-22 

4-6 

12-16 

13-17 

0.0-0.3 

0.0-0.3 

0.8-1.5 

0.6-1.0 

I-S-2.S 

0.8-1.5 

0.4-0.8 

0.3-0.6 

0.2 

It  will  be  noted,  that  there  is  more  water  and  less  fiber  in  the 
sugar  beet  than  in  the  sugar  cane ;  there  is  also  more  ash  (or 
salts)  and  more  nitrogenous  matter,  but  much  less  invert  sugar, 
in  the  beet  than  in  the  cane.  These  differences  in  composition 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  differences  in  process  of 
manufacture. 

The  beets,  after  they  are  dug  and  have  had  their  green  tops 
removed,  are  hauled  to  the  factory;  they  are  first  washed  to 
remove  adhering  dirt  and  then  passed  over  knives  which  reduce 
them  to  fine  slicings  or  chips. 

The  fine  slicings  are  next  carried  by  a  conveyor  to  the  diffusion 
battery,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  tall  boiler-shaped  cylinders 
called  cells.  These  cells  are  connected  by  pipes,  the  outlet 
from  the  top  of  one  cell  passing  downward  into  the  bottom  of 
the  next  and  so  on  around.  Each  cell  is  filled  with  beet  slicings 
through  a  manhole  at  the  top  and  when  full  is  tightly  closed  with 
a  cover  which  is  clamped  into  place.  Twelve  cells  connected 
in  series  usually  constitute  a  battery,  and  when  all  are  filled, 


422  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

warm  water  of  about  80°  C.  is  passed  through  the  system.  The 
water  circulating  upwards  through  each  cell  removes  the  sugar 
from  the  beet  slicings  and  becomes  richer  and  richer  in  sugar 
with  each  succeeding  cell.  Heaters  are  placed  between  the 
cells  so  that  the  circulating  water  is  kept  always  at  the  right 
temperature.  When  the  water  has  made  a  complete  circuit 
through  the  1 2  cells  of  the  battery,  the  slicings  in  the  first  cell 
are  practically  exhausted;  this  cell  is  then  thrown  out  of  cir- 
culation, emptied  of  exhausted  chips,  refilled  with  fresh  slicings, 
and  reconnected  with  the  system,  while  the  second  cell  under- 
goes replenishing.  The  process  is  thus  a  continuous  one; 
10  cells  are  always  in  circulation,  while  one  is  always  being 
emptied  and  one  always  being  refilled. 

The  exhausted  slicings  from  the  diffusion  cells  are  dried  by 
the  heat  of  the  flue  gases  from  the  boilers  and  are  then  sold  as 
a  cattle  food. 

The  diffusion  juice  as  it  leaves  the  last  cell  of  the  battery 
contains  from  12  to  15  per  cent  sugar  and  is  ready  for  clari- 
fication. The  juice  is  first  treated  with  a  considerable  excess 
of  lime,  and  the  dissolved  lime  precipitated  by  leading  in  a  stream 
of  carbon  dioxide.     This  process  is  called  "  carbonatation." 

After  the  first  treatment  with  lime  and  carbon  dioxide  the  pre- 
cipitated calcium  carbonate  and  other  impurities  are  filtered  off  in 
filter  presses  and  the  juice  subjected  to  a  second  carbonatation. 

The  juice  from  the  second  carbonatation  is  again  filtered, 
when  it  is  evaporated,  grained,  and  centrifugaled,  these  processes 
being  carried  out  essentially  as  described  for  cane  juice. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  physical  properties  of  raw 
cane  sugar  and  raw  beet  sugar.  Raw  cane  sugar  has  usually 
a  fragrant  odor  and  a  pleasant  taste  which  many  prefer  to  the 
refined  product,  while  raw  beet  sugar  has  a  bitter  and  nauseating 
taste  arid  an  odor  suggestive  of  glue. 

In  this  country  beet  sugar  is  usually  refined  in  the  same 
factories  in  which  it  is  extracted  from  the  beets. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY 


423 


Development  and  Extent  of  the  Sugar  Industry  as  a  Whole 

In  the  above  outlines  of  the  production  of  sugar  from  cane 
and  from  beets  the  development  of  these  industries  has  been 
briefly  mentioned.  Speaking  generally,  the  beet  sugar  industry 
has  been  developed  more  quickly  and  more  scientifically.  Until 
1 8 10  there  was  no  beet  sugar  industry,  and  in  1852,  of  the  world's 
supply,  the  cane  furnished  six  times  as  much  sugar  as  the  beet ; 
but  under  the  application  of  strict  scientific  control  the  beet 
sugar  industry  developed  until,  in  1884,  the  production  of  sugar 
from  the  two  sources  was  about  equal.  By  1899  almost  twice 
as  much  sugar  was  made  from  beets  as  from  cane,  largely,  how- 
ever, because  the  sugar  industry  in  Cuba  had  been  almost  ex- 
tinguished by  war.  Since  the  restoration  of  peace  in  Cuba, 
modern  methods  have  been  introduced  into  the  cane  sugar  in- 
dustry there,  as  was  already  being  done  in  Hawaii,  Java,  and  other 
cane-growing  countries.  In  1907  the  production  of  sugar  from 
beets  and  from  cane  was  again  about  equal  and  has  remained 
approximately  so.  The  world's  production  for  the  year  191 2- 
1913  is  estimated  at  18,144,638  tons,  of  which  9,178,574  tons 
were  attributed  to  the  cane  and  8,968,064  tons  to  the  beet.  The 
production  of  each  of  the  ten  leading  countries  for  the  same  year 
is  given  by  Browne  as  follows : 


(i)   Germany     . 

(2)  British  India 

(3)  Cuba      .     . 

(4)  Austria  . 

(s)  United  States 
Colonies  . 

(6)  Russia    . 

(7)  Java .      .     . 
France    . 
Holland       . 


and 


(8) 
(9) 


(10)   Belgium 


Its 


2,700,913  tons 
2,583,600  tons 
2,428,537  tons 
1,901,615  tons 

1,770,837  tons 

1,374,500  tons 

1,331,180  tons 

960,900  tons 

316,177  tons 

298,584  tons 


1,146,773 
624,064 


(beet) 
(cane) 
(cane) 
(beet) 
(cane) 
(beet) 
(beet) 
(cane) 
(beet) 
(beet) 
(beet ) 


Of  the  sugar  attributed  to  the  "  United  States  and  its  Colonies" 
somewhat  more  than  half  was  produced  in  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico, 


424  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

and  the  Philippines,  and  somewhat  less  than  half  (about  800,000 
tons)  in  the  continental  United  States. 

The  total  amount  of  sugar  used  in  the  continental  United 
States  is  nearly  4,000,000  tons  or  8,000,000,000  pounds,  or 
about  85  pounds  per  capita,  annually. 

Only  England  and  Denmark  show  an  apparently  larger  per 
capita  consumption  of  sugar  than  the  United  States.  Since 
England  exports  considerable  quantities  of  jams  and  marmalade, 
and  Denmark  of  sweetened  condensed  milk,  and  the  sugar  enter- 
ing into  these  products  is  not  deducted  in  estimating  the  apparent 
per  capita  consumption,  there  is  some  doubt  whether  the  actual 
per  capita  consumption  is  larger  in  any  other  civilized  country 
than  in  the  United  States. 

The  money  value  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  the  United  States 
is  usually  about  $400,000,000  per  year. 

O^Am**!*^ ^^ilf'lfy-products  of  Sugar  Manux«vv»*«   ^  n\  *.- / 

^    The  u3e  of  molasses  and  refinery  sirup  as  ntiman  food  will  (\ 
be  considered  later.     The  following  account  of  the  agricultural 
and  industrial  utilization  of  other  by-products  is  condensed 
from  a  paper  by  Browne  in  the  School  of  Mines  Quarterly  for 
July,  1913. 

It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  of  all  manufacturing  that  the  number  of 
by-products  and  the  means  for  their  utilization  increase  with  the  improve- 
ments in  technical  processes.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  sugar 
industry. 

The  by-products  of  sugar  manufacture  in  the  more  progressive  countries 
are  so  numerous  that  it  is  possible  to  cover  the  field  of  their  utilization  only  in 
the  most  superficial  manner.  In  treating  our  subject  we  shall  find  it  in  many 
ways  more  convenient  to  subdivide  it  according  to  the  character  of  by- 
product, S«  follows : 

1.  The  utilization  of  the  cellular  refuse  of  beet  and  cane. 

2.  The  utilization  of  the  impurities  remoyed  in  clarification. 

3.  The  utilization  of  the  waste  molasses.j» 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  42$ 

Utilization  of  the  Cellular  Refuse  of  Beet  and  Cane 

•  In  discussing  this  topic,  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  differences  between  the 
physiological  structure  of  these  two  plants,  and  also  the  differences  in  method 
of  extracting  the  sugar. 

The  pulp  that  remains  in  the  diffusion  batteries  after  washing  out  the  sugar 
from  the  sliced  beets  forms  an  important  by-product  which  is  also  used  for 
feeding  cattle.  If  there  is  a  large  cattle  farm  or  ranch  near  the  sugar  factory, 
the  wet  pulp  can  be  fed  out  just  as  it  is  emptied  from  the  diffusion  cells. 
The  farmers  who  supply  a  sugar  factory  with  beets  frequently  stipulate  for  a 
return  of  the  beet  pulp  for  feeding  purposes,  and  a  considerable  amount  of 
the  pressed  pulp  is  sent  out  from  the  sugar  factories  in  freight  cars,  frequently 
to  a  distance  of  50  or  even  100  miles. 

When  local  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  feeding  the  pulp  or  converting  it 
into  ensilage,  many  factories  dry  the  pulp,  using  for  this  purpose  the  heat  of 
the  flue  gas  escaping  from  the  boilers.  The  dried  beet  residue  consists  of  a 
crisp  brittle  material  which  is  packed  in  bags  and  sold  as  a  cattle  food ;  it  is 
much  relished  by  farm  animals. 

In  the  cane  sugar  industry  a  large  amount  of  waste  cellular  matter  also 
results  from  the  harvesting  and  milling  of  the  crop.  The  leafy  portion  of 
the  cane  top  is  sometimes  fed  to  farm  animals.  In  Louisiana,  owing  to  the 
limited  period  of  harvest  and  the  haste  to  get  the  cane  all  pressed  before 
winter,  no  time  is  available  for  utilizing  the  cane  tops ;  they  are  therefore  left 
upon  the  ground  and  are  afterwards  burned. 

The  bagasse,  or  cellular  matter  of  the  cane  stalk,  which  is  left  after  milling, 
is  a  very  important  by-product  and  many  schemes  have  been  proposed  for  its 
utilization.  In  most  cane-producing  countries  the  bagasse  is  used  as  a  fuel 
to  supply  steam  for  the  engines  and  heat  for  the  evaporators.  In  many 
places  the  bagasse  is  the  only  supply  of  fuel  available,  and  when  this  is  the 
case  other  methods  of  utilization  are  impracticable.  Bagasse,  as  it  leaves  the 
cane  mill  under  good  systems  of  extraction,  contains  about  50  per  cent  mois- 
ture and  ''r  this  condition  has  a  fuel  value  about  one  quarter  that  of  soft  coal. 
The  employment  of  bagasse  as  fuel  has  appeared  to  many  a  very  wasteful 
procedure,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  it  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper. 

Under  good  conditions  of  manufacture,  four  tons  of  wet  bagasse  will  give 
one  ton  of  paper. 

In  this  connection  mention  should  be  made  of  a  new  process  which  is  being 
tried  at  present,  which,  if  successful,  promises  to  revolutionize  present 
methods  of  sugar  manufacture.  This  process  consists  in  shredding  the  cane 
near  the  fields  where  it  is  cut,  drying  the  shredded  stalks,  pressing  the  sub- 


426  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

stance  into  compact  bales,  and  shipping  it  to  factories  in  the  United  States 
or  elsewhere.  The  dry  material  is  there  extracted  with  water  in  diffusion 
batteries,  and  the  sugar  which  is  washed  out  is  manufactured  directly  into 
refined  sugar.  The  residue  of  fiber,  in  another  department  of  the  same  fac- 
tory, is  made  into  paper.  The  sugar  world  is  watching  the  developments  of 
this  new  experiment  with  great  interest. 

Utilization  of  Impurities  removed  in  Clarification 

The  quantity  of  filter-press  cake  obtained  in  sugar  manufacture  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  amount  of  lime  and  other  agents  used  in  clarifica- 
tion, and  according  to  the  purity  of  the  juices.  The  amount  of  wet  press- 
cake  obtained  in  Java  by  the  ordinary  process  of  clarification  was  found  to  be 
about  I  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  cane ;  the  press-cake  contained  about  70 
per  cent  of  moisture  and  10  per  cent  of  sucrose,  whence  the  actual  amount  of 
impurities  removed  from  the  juice  is  only  about  0.2  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  cane.  The  material  consists  of  fine  particles  of  bagasse  ground  off 
in  milling,  with  an  admixture  of  wax,  proteins,  gums,  calcium  sulphate  and 
phosphate,  iron  oxide,  and  alumina,  and  considerable  earthy  matter  which 
was  brought  in  on  the  cane  stalks  from  the  field. 

Where  the  carbonatation  process  of  clarification  is  used,  as  is  the  case  with 
beet-sugar  manufacture,  the  press-cake  is  mostly  calcium  carbonate,  the  re- 
mainder consisting  of  the  wax,  proteins,  gums,  etc.,  found  in  the  ordinary 
press-cake. 

Great  benefit  has  been  derived  from  the  use  of  filter-press  cake  as  a  fertili- 
zer, the  nitrogen  existing  in  a  form  which  is  readily  available.  The  excess  of 
calcium  carbonate  in  carbonatation  cake  has  also  been  found  beneficial  upon 
certain  soils. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Molasses 

The  word  molasses  has  many  shades  of  meaning ;  chemically  speaking,  we 
may  consider  it  as  the  sugar  factory  mother  liquor  from  which  a  part  of  the 
sucrose  has  been  crystallized.  The  molasses  from  the  first  crystallization 
may  yield,  upon  evaporation,  a  second  crop  of  sugar  cr>-stals,  and  the 
molasses  from  this  may  even  yield  a  small  amount  of  impure  third  sugar. 
The  approximate  average  composition  of  beet  and  cane  molasses,  from  which 
no  more  sucrose  will  crystallize,  is  given  in  the  following  table : 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY 


427 


Beet  Molasses 

Cane  Molasses 

Water 

Sucrose      

20% 

SO 

Trace 

10       (5%K20) 

10       (2  %  N) 

20% 

30 
30 

8 

2 
10 

Invert  sugar  

Salts     . 

(4%K20) 
(0.4%  N) 

Nitrogenous 
Gums,  acids. 

substances 
etc.      .     .     . 

100 

100 

It  is  seen  from  the  table  that  beet  molasses  is  distinguished  from  cane 
molasses  by  a  higher  percentage  of  sucrose,  by  a  much  higher  percentage  of 
nitrogenous  substances,  and  by  a  comparative  absence  of  invert  sugar. 

The  table  shows  5  per  cent  of  potash  and  2  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  beet 
molasses  and  4  per  cent  of  potash  and  0.4  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  cane 
molasses ;  these  figures  suggest  at  once  that  molasses  might  have  some  value 
as  a  fertilizer ;  and  such  in  fact  has  been  demonstrated  to  be  the  case  upon 
certain  kinds  of  soil,  more  especially  those  deficient  in  humus.  The  applica- 
tion of  molasses  to  other  soils,  however,  has  caused  an  acid  fermentation  with 
souring  of  the  soil  aTi3  loss  of  fertility,  so  that  this  method  of  utilizing 
molasses  is  not  uniformly  successful.  But  the  greatest  objection  against  this 
use  of  molasses  is  its  wastefulness.  There  are  more  profitable  methods  of 
using  the  sugar  and  other  organic  solids  of  molasses  than  employing  them  as  a 
supply  of  humus. 

A  second  use  for  molasses  is  as  a  fuel.  Molasses  containing  20  per  cent 
moisture  has  a  thermal  value  about  three  eighths  that  of  coal.  By  means  of 
specially  constructed  furnaces  it  is  possible  to  secure  a  perfect  combustion 
of  the  carbonaceous  matter  of  molasses,  8  lb.  of  molasses  supplying  the  same 
heat  as  3  lb.  of  coal.  A  residue  of  ash,  very  rich  in  potash,  is  left,  and  this 
can  find  a  use  either  as  fertilizer  or  as  a  raw  material  for  making  potash  salts. 

Molasses,  as  we  have  seen,  contains  50  per  cent  or  more  of  sugar,  and  the 
use  of  such  a  valuable  food  material  as  a  fuel  is  wasteful  if  other  more  profi- 
table means  of  its  disposal  are  available.  Unquestionably  the  most  perfect 
utilization  of  molasses  is  as  a  food.  The  odor  of  beet  molasses  is  enough  to 
convince  one  that  it  is  unfit  for  human  consumption.  Waste  cane  molasses 
is  much  more  palatable  ^  .  .  .  and  its  use  as  a  stock  food,  whether  for  work- 
ing animals,  for  milk  production,  or  for  fattening,  is  attended  with  splendid 

'  For  discussion  of  molasses  as  human  food  see  later  sections  of  this  chapter. 


428  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

results,  provided  overfeeding,  which  might  cause  derangement  of  the  digestive 
system,  is  avoided.  The  higher  percentage  of  salts  in  beet  molasses  renders 
it  somewhat  less  desirable  as  a  cattle  food  than  cane  molasses. 

The  stable  manure  from  animals  fed  upon  molasses  contains  the  valuable 
potash  and  nitrogen  of  the  latter,  and  the  use  of  such  manure  as  a  fertilizer 
has  all  the  advantages  and  none  of  the  disadvantages  which  result  from  the 
direct  application  of  molasses  to  the  soil. 

From  the  sugar  manufacturer's  viewpoint,  the  dried  leaves  and  pulp  of 
the  sugar  beet  and  the  bagasse  of  the  sugar  cane  make  most  excellent  and 
convenient  materials  for  preparing  molasses  feeds.  By  combining  them  with 
molasses  in  suitable  proportions  a  successful  utilization  of  two  by-products  is 
accomplished  in  one  operation.  The  percentage  of  molasses  in  mixed 
molasses  feeds,  according  to  analyses  by  HaUigan,  varies  from  lo  to  60  per 
cent.  If  more  than  25  per  cent  of  molasses  is  used,  the  feed  must  be  heated 
in  driers  to  remove  the  excess  of  moisture,  which  should  not  exceed  1 2  per  cent. 
If  too  much  moisture  is  present,  the  feed  becomes  sticky  and  is  very  liable  to 
spoil  through  fermentation. 

One  of  the  most  common  methods  of  using  molasses  is  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol  and  rum.  In  many  tropical  countries  the  sugar  house  and  dis- 
tillery are  side  by  side,  and  the  chemist  is  required  to  have  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  fermentation  and  distilling  as  well  as  of  sugar  manufacture. 

In  manufacturing  alcohol  from  molasses,  the  latter  is  first  diluted  to  a  sugar 
content  of  about  12  per  cent.  This  solution,  or  "  wash,"  is  usually  acidified 
slightly  with  sulphuric  acid  to  prevent  the  growth  of  injurious  bacteria,  and 
then,  after  adding  yeast,  is  fermented  until  no  further  decrease  in  density  is 
■  observed.  The  fermented  liquid  is  then  distilled  and  the  alcohol  or  rum 
collected  in  receivers. 

Two  gallons  of  cane  molasses  should  give  a  yield  of  one  gallon  180-proof 
alcohol  (90  per  cent  strength)  which  is  the  usual  standard  for  denaturing. 
Such  alcohol,  according  to  the  last  quotations,  has  a  commercial  value  of 
38  c.  per  gallon.  The  cost  of  manufacture  may  be  set  at  S-c.  a  gallon,  which 
leaves  30  c.  as  the  value  of  the  raw  molasses,  or  15  c.  per  gallon.  Sugar-cane 
molasses  in  tank  cars,  according  to  the  last  New  Orleans  quotations,  has  a 
commercial  value  of  6  c.  a  gallon,  so  that  there  is  a  profit  of  about  9  c.  a  gallon 
in  operating  a  molasses  distillery,  provided  the  output  of  denatured  alcohol 
finds  a  ready  market,  which  at  present  is  not  always  the  case.  The  present 
high  price  of  denatured  alcohol  prevents  its  competing  with  gasoline,  and 
other  pe'ttoleum  products,  as  a  source  of  power,  light,  or  fuel. 

In  tropical  countries  the  distiller  of  molasses  must  turn  his  attention  almost 
entirely  to  the  manufacture  of  rum. 

Although  we  may  not  advocate  its  use  as  a  beverage,  rum  is  a  commercial 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  429 

product  which  the  food  chemist  is  called  upon  to  inspect,  analyze,  and  in 
other  ways  to  reckon  with.  A  few  words  may  therefore  be  devoted  to  the 
methods  peculiar  to  rum  manufacture.  Rum  is  valued  not  simply  by  its 
alcohol  content  but  also  by  its  flavor. 

The  flavor  of  rum  is  due  to  the  presence  of  alcoholic  esters  of  acetic,  butyric, 
and  other  higher  fatty  acids;  the  first  requirement  in  the  production  of 
flavor  is  the  formation  of  the  acids  for  esterification. 

Acetic  acid  is  prepared  by  allowing  cane  juice,  skimmings  from  the 
clarifiers  of  the  sugar  house,  and  other  refuse,  to  undergo  an  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation, and  then  pumping  the  liquid  on  to  cane  trash  in  cisterns.  An 
acetic  fermentation  sets  in,  just  as  when  cider  is  poured  over  shavings  in  the 
quick  vinegar  process,  and  the  solution  becomes  strongly  acid. 

For  the  production  of  butyric,  caprylic,  and  the  other  fatty  acids,  a  putre- 
factive fermentation  is  necessary,  and  this  is  carried  out  by  dumping  the 
dead  yeast  from  the  stills,  cane  refuse,  lees  from  the  retorts,  and  other  adven- 
titious matter,  into  a  receptacle  called  the  "  muck  hole."  A  putrefactive 
fermentation  sets  in  with  formation  of  butyric  and  other  fatty  acids.  To 
neutralize  the  excess  of  free  acid,  which  would  retard  fermentation,  powdered 
marl  is  added  from  time  to  time.  When  the  liquid  in  the  muck  hole  is  ripe, 
it  is  added  to  the  acid  cisterns,  the  free  acetic  acid  thus  liberating  the  butyric 
and  other  acids  from  their  lime  salts.  The  mixture  of  acids,  thus  produced, 
constitutes  the  basis  for  flavor  production. 

In  conducting  the  fermentation,  the  wash  is  prepared  by  mixing  molasses, 
skimmings,  and  cane  juice  with  a  certain  amount  of  "  dunder,"  which  is  the 
spent  liquor  obtained  from  the  stills  after  distillation.  The  dunder  is  rich  in 
nitrogenous  compounds  and  salts,  and  serves  as  a  nutrient  for  the  growth  of 
the  yeast.  After  fermentation  has  begun,  a  requisite  amount  of  the  acid 
flavoring  mixture  is  added ;  a  part  of  the  alcohol,  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
yeast  upon  the  sugars,  unites  with  the  acids  of  the  flavor  to  produce  ethyl 
acetate,  ethyl  propionate,  ethyl  butyrate,  and  the  other  higher  esters,  all 
of  which,  passing  over  with  the  alcohol  when  the  wash  is  distilled,  give  the 
resulting  nun  its  characteristic  aroma  and  flavor.  High  flavored  Jamaica 
rum  may  contain  as  high  as  i  or  2  per  cent  of  esters,  while  the  low  flavored 
rums  contain  less  than  half  of  this  amount.  Over  95  per  cent  of  the  esters 
consists  of  ethyl  acetate;  the  remainder  is  principally  ethyl  butyrate,  the 
ester  of  chief  importance  as  regards  flavor  production,  with  small  amounts  of 
other  fatty  acid  homologues. 

Methods  for  utilizing  sugar-beet  molasses.  Germany  has  made  the  greatest 
advancement  in  this  regard.  Of  a  total  production  of  400,000  tons  of  beet 
molasses  in  Germany,  about  55  per  cent  is  desaccharified  for  sugar  production, 
about  30  per  cent  is  used  as  a  cattle  food,  about  10  per  cent  is  fermented  into 


430  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

alcohol,  and  the  remaining  5  per  cent  is  utilized  in  various  miscellaneous  ways. 
Among  the  latter  we  may  mention  the  use  of  molasses  for  manufacturing 
dye  stufifs,  shoe  blacking,  yeast,  molds  and  briquettes,  and  numerous  other 
commodities. 

The  residues  from  the  desaccharification  factories,^  best  known  under  its 
German  name  of  molasses  schlempe,  has  been  a  subject  of  special  study  from 
the  standpoint  of  utilization.  If  we  subtract  the  sucrose  from  the  composi- 
tion of  beet  molasses  given  in  the  previous  table,  we  shall  form  a  fair  idea  of 
the  composition  of  schlempe.  From  1000  kg.  of  beet  molasses  are  obtained 
about  350  kg.  of  concentrated  schlempe,  containing  about  30  per  cent  of 
mineral  matter,  mostly  potash  salts,  some  20  per  cent  or  more  of  nitrogenous* 
substances,  and  a  remainder  of  acids,  gums,  caramelization  products,  and 
other  organic  residues. 

Molasses  schlempe  contains  12  to  15  per  cent  of  potassium  and  4  per  cent 
or  more  of  nitrogen,  and  its  conversion  into  derivatives  of  these  elements 
constitutes  at  present  the  chief  method  of  utilization.  The  schlempe  is  first 
heated  in  retorts,  by  which  means  it  is  decomposed  into  a  mixture  of  volatile 
products  consisting  of  carbon  dioxide,  carbon  monoxide,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
methane,  ammonia,  methyl  amine,  methyl  alcohol,  water,  and  other  sub- 
stances. The  volatile  decomposition  products  escape  from  the  retorts  at  a 
temperature  of  about  400°  C.  and  are  led  through  a  system  of  tubes  heated 
to  a  temperature  of  about  1000°  C.  The  effect  of  this  heating  is  to  convert 
the  volatile  nitrogenous  compounds  into  ammonium  cyanide.  After  leaving 
the  hot  tubes,  the  gases,  which  are  always  kept  under  reduced  pressure,  are 
cooled,  freed  from  tar,  and  then  washed  over  sulphuric  acid  to  break  up  the 
ammonium  cyanide,  the  ammonium  sulphate,  which  is  formed,  being  re- 
covered. The  hydrocyanic  acid  is  then  absorbed  in  water  and  the  residue  of 
combustible  gases  is  led  back  to  the  furnaces  for  heating  the  retorts.  The 
hydrocyanic  acid  is  then  distilled,  and  absorbed  in  sodium  hydroxide ;  the 
solution  of  the  latter,  after  evaporating  and  crystallizing,  yields  solid  sodium 
cyanide. 

By  the  above  method  about  three  fourths  of  the  nitrogen  in  molasses 
schlempe  is  recovered  as  ammonium  sulphate  and  sodium  cyanide,  the 
remaining  one  fourth  escaping  as  gaseous  nitrogen.  A  small  amount  of 
pyridine  is  also  obtained  by  this  process,  in  connection  with  the  ammonia. 
The  residue  of  mineral  matter  in  the  retorts,  after  distilling  the  schlempe,  is 
worked  up  into  potash,  of  which  some  15,000  tons  are  made  annually  in 
Germany  from  this  source. 

'The  desaccharification  of  beet  molasses  is  accomplished  by  precipitating  the 
sucrose  as  strontium  saccharate,  which,  after  separation  from  the  molasses,  is 
decomposed  by  carbon  dioxide  and  the  sucrose  recovered  as  commercial  sugar. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  43 1 

Two  factories  in  Germany  produce  annually,  by  the  process  of  distillation 
described,  about  5000  tons  of  ammonium  sulphate  and  5000  tons  of  sodium 
cyanide,  with  a  commercial  value  of  about  $1,750,000.  The  sodium  cyanide 
thus  manufactured  is  nearly  all  exported  to  the  Transvaal,  where  it  is  used 
for  extracting  gold  by  the  well-known  cyanide  process. 

Chemists  in  Germany  are  making  further  efforts  towards  improving  the 
utilization  of  molasses  schlempe.  By  the  present  methods  of  distillation 
about  one  fourth  of  the  nitrogen  is  lost,  and  this  is  wasteful  from  the  stand- 
point of  highest  economy.  It  has  been  felt  by  some  chemists  that  efforts 
should  be  made  towards  removing  some  of  the  valuable  organic  constitutents 
of  the  schlempe  before  making  the  distillation.  Among  the  more  important 
of  the  nitrogenous  organic  substances  we  may  mention  10  to  12  per  cent  of 
betaine,  5  to  7  per  cent  of  glutamic  acid,  i  to  2  per  cent  of  leucin  and  isoleu- 
cin,  and  various  other  amino-acids,  etc.  Search  is  being  made  for  uses  to 
which  these  substances  may  be  put,  and  wikh  the  discovery  of  such  uses  we 
may  look  for  greater  refinements  in  the  processes  of  utilization. 

Molasses,  Sirups,  Honey 

Molasses  was  formerly  the  mother  Hquor  remaining  after 
the  removal  of  one  crop  of  sugar  crystals  from  the  boiled-down 
juice  of  the  sugar  cane.  Since  the  removal  of  cane  sugar  by  one 
crystallization  is  far  from  complete,  the  molasses  thus  obtained 
was  rich  in  sucrose  and  contained  also  much  the  greater  part 
of  the  other  constituents  of  the  cane  juice.  Atwater  and  Bryant, 
in  1896,  report  the  average  of  (12)  American  analyses  published 
before  that  date  as  follows : 

Per  Cent 

Water 25.7 

"  Protein  "  (Nitrogen  X  6.25) 2.7 

Carbohydrates 68.0 

Ash 3.6 

The  introduction  of  modern  methods  into  sugar  house  practice 
has  tended  steadily  to  remove  the  sucrose  more  and  more 
completely,  with  the  result  that  the  amount  of  molasses  is 
decreased,  its  sugar  content  is  lowered,  and  its  content  of 
impurities  is  increased.  The  term  "  impurities  "  is  somewhat 
misleading,  since  the  constituents  other  than  sucrose  which  cane 


432 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


juice  naturally  contains  are  unquestionably  of  food  value; 
in  fact,  the  molasses  is  a  much  less  one-sided  food  than  the  sugar 
removed  from  it.  When,  however,  the  ash  constituents  and 
amids  (or  other  ''  nitrogenous  extractives  ")  of  the  cane  juice 
are  concentrated  to  such  an  extent  as  in  the  final  molasses  of  a 
modern  raw  sugar  factory,  the  product  is  too  strong  in  flavor  to 
be  attractive  as  human  food,  and  may  contain  such  a  high 
concentration  of  salts  as  to  throw  doubt  upon  its  wholesomeness 
when  eaten  in  any  considerable  quantity.  To  illustrate  the 
difference  in  composition  between  molasses  from  successive 
crystallizations  of  sugar  Wiley  gives  the  following  typical 
analyses  of  "  first,"  "  second,"  and  "  third  "  molasses,  the  com- 
position being  reduced  to  a  uniform  basis  of  water  content : 

Table  51.     Composition  of  First,  SECO^rD,  and  Third  Molasses 

(Wiley) 


Water  .... 
Sucrose  (cane  sugar) 
Dextrose  (glucose) 
Levulose  (fructose) 
Acids  and  gums  . 
Proteins 

Amids    .... 
Ash 


First 

Second 

Molasses 

Molasses* 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

20.00 

20.00 

S3-6o 

41.70 

8.76 

12.20 

8.00 

12.50 

4-5° 

6.50 

0.20 

0.2s 

0.94 

1.50 

4.00 

5-35 

Third 

Molasses 


Per  cent 
20.00 

31-70 
15.00 
16.50 
8.20 
0.30 
2.00 
6.30 


According  to  the  definitions  and  standards  of  the  Association 
of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists:  Molasses  is  the  product  left 
after  separating  the  sugar  from  masse  cuite,  melada,  mush 
sugar,  or  concrete,  and  contains  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of 
water  and  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  ash. 

This  standard  would  practically  confine  the  term  molasses  as 
a  commercial  designation  for  human  food  to  material  of  the 
nature  of  the  "  first  molasses  "  of  modern  sugar  manufacture. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  433 

Refiner's  sirup  is,  as  already  explained,  the  "mother  liquor" 
or  residual  liquid  product  obtained  in  the  process  of  refining  raw 
sugar.  According  to  the  standards  of  the  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists,  it  contains  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  water  and 
not  more  than  8  per  cent  of  ash. 

This  product  is  also  called  "  sugar  refinery  molasses  "  and 
sometimes  "  sugar-house  molasses."  The  latter  expression 
is  ambiguous  since  the  term  "  sugar  house  "  is  more  commonly 
applied  to  the  raw  sugar  factory  than  to  the  refinery. 

Mixed  sirups.  Refiner's  sirup  contains  the  coloring  and 
flavoring  substances  which  distinguish  the  brown  or  yellow  raw 
cane  sugar  from  the  white  refined  sugar  (which  latter,  as  it  ap- 
pears in  commerce,  may  have  been  made  either  from  the  cane 
or  the  beet).  The  characteristic  flavor  of  the  raw  cane  sugar 
which  is  thus  left  in  the  sirup  in  the  refining  process  is  preferred 
by  many  people  to  the  mere  sweetness  of  sucrose  or  glucose. 
Hence  the  refiner's  sirup  is  in  demand  for  mixing  with  com- 
mercial glucose  sirup  (made  from  corn  as  described  in  an  earlier 
chapter)  for  the  production  of  "  corn  sirup  with  cane  flavor  " 
of  which  it  is  estimated  that  about  350,000,000  pounds  are  con- 
sumed annually  in  the  United  States. 

Other  mixed  sirups  are  made  from  commercial  glucose  or 
corn  sirup  with  refined  cane  sugar  sirup  (the  product  in  this 
case  being  practically  colorless),  with  sorghum  sirup  made  by 
boiling  down  the  juice  of  the  sorghum  cane,  or  with  sirups 
made  by  concentrating  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  without 
removing  any  of  the  sugar.  More  expensive  mixed  sirups  are 
those  made  by  mixing  either  glucose  or  sucrose  sirup  with 
maple  sirup. 

Maple  sirup  is  the  most  highly  prized  of  all  table  sirups.  It 
is  made  by  evaporating  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  to  such  a 
point  that  the  product  contains  only  about  30  per  cent  of  water. 
The  standards  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists 
specify  that  maple  sirup  shall  contain  not  more  than  32  per  cent 


434  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

of  water  and  not  less  than  0.45  per  cent  of  maple  sugar  ash.  The 
reason  for  setting  a  minimum  limit  for  ash  in  this  case,  whereas 
in  the  case  of  molasses  and  refiner's  sirup  the  limit  is  set  in  the 
other  direction,  is  that  the  maple  sirup  is  prized  for  the  flavor 
imparted  by  its  "  impurities  "  (constituents  other  than  sugar), 
and  there  is  no  likelihood  that  the  maple  sap  will  be  subjected 
to  any  such  refining  processes  as  might  introduce  an  excessive 
amount  of  ash  constituents,  whereas  a  low  ash  content  would 
be  an  indication  that  the  maple  siiiip  had  been  "  extended  " 
by  diluting  with  a  solution  of  refined  sugar  (a  not  uncommon 
method  of  adulteration,  since  refined  c^ne  sugar  is  much  cheaper 
than  unrefined  maple  sugar  or  even  than  the  concentrated  maple 
sap). 

The  census  returns  show  4,106,418  gallons  or  about  40,000,000 
pounds  of  maple  sirup,  and  14,000,000  pounds  of  maple  sugar 
made  in  the  United  States  in  1909. 

Open  kettle  cane  sirup,  made  by  boiling  down  in  open  vessels 
the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  to  a  consistency  similar  to  that  of 
molasses,  is  said  Ho  be  a  common  article  of  food  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  product  contains  all  the  sugars  and  ash  constit- 
uents of  the  cane  juice,  and  their  relative  proportions  are  changed 
only  in  so  far  as  the  sucrose  is  in  part  hydrolyzed  to  glucose 
and  fructose,  and  in  part  caramelized,  giving  the  sirup  a 
reddish  tint. 

Honey.  Before  sugar  became  a  common  article  of  commerce, 
honey  was  the  chief  sweetening  material  in  use.  Honey  con- 
sists chiefly  of  a  mixture  of  sugars  gathered  from  flowers  and 
more  or  less  changed  by  the  honeybee.  It  is  the  only  common 
food  material  which  contains  more  fructose  than  glucose.  The 
ayerage  of  92  analyses  of  normal  honeys  ^  shows : 

*  Wiley's  Foods  and  Their  Adulteration. 

*  Browne,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
Bulletin  no. 


-     SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND    CONFECTIONERY  435 

Per  Cent 

Water i7-7o 

Sucrose i.go^ 

Fructose  (levulose) 40.50  . 

Glucose  (dextrose) .     .     .  34.48 

Dextrin 1.51  , 

Ash 0.18 

Undetermined 3.73 

In  some  instances  genuine  honey  has  been  found  to  contain 
as  high  as  8  per  cent  of  sucrose ;  more  than  that  would  usiSUy 
be  taken  as  an  indication  that  the  honey  is  either  abnormal  or 
adulterated.  The  differences  in  flavor  are  largely  due  to  the 
characteristic  esters  ("ethereal "  substances)  found  in  the  nectars 
of  different  flowers. 

With  the  production  of  sucrose  and  glucose  on  a  large  scale 
and  at  a  low  price,  honey  has  become  relatively  a  luxury,  and, 
except  as  prevented  by  legislation,  has  been  largely  adulterated 
with  sucrose  and  glucose  sirups.  These  adulterations  ar.e 
readily  detected  by  chemical  analysis,  since  genuine  honey  almost 
always  contains  enough  fructose  (levUlose)  to  make  it  levo-rota- 
tory  to  polarized  light,  whereas  both  sucrose  and  commercial 
glucose  are  dextro-rotatory.  Adulteration  of  honey  with 
"  invert  sugar,"  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  glucose  (dextrose)  and 
fructose  (levulose)  obtained  by  hydrolysis  of  sucrose,  is  much 
more  difficult  of  detection,  since  the  main  constituents  of  the 
honey  and  the  adulterant  are  here  the  same. 

Confectionery 

The  term  confectionery  covers  a  variety  of  products,  all  arti- 
ficial or  manufactured,  consisting  largely  of  sugar  of  some  kind, 
with  flavoring  and  usually  also  coloring  material  either  added 
or  developed  by  cooking  processes. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  confectionery 
is  adulterated  "if  it  contain  terra  alba,  barytes,  talc,  chrome 
yellow,  or  other  mineral  substance  or  poisonous  color  or  flavor, 


436  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

or  other  ingredient  deleterious  or  detrimental  to  health,  or  any 
vinous,  malt,  or  spirituous  liquor  or  compound  or  narcotic  drug." 
Since  adulterated  foods  are  illegal  even  if  truthfully  branded,  the 
above  provision  amounts  to  a  specific  prohibition  against  the 
use  in  confectionery  of  any  one  of  the  substances  named.  It  is 
of  interest  to  note  the  prohibition  of  alcohol  in  confectionery, 
whereas  in  ordinary  foods  and  drinks  its  presence  and  amount 
are  not  restricted,  and  in  the  case  of  drugs  it  is  only  required 
that  the  proportion  present  be  stated  on  the  label.  In  addition 
to  these  special  provisions,  the  purity  of  confectionery  is  further 
protected  by  all  the  general  provisions  of  the  law  against  adul- 
teration and  misbranding  of  food,  since  the  term  food  as  used 
in  the  law  is  defined  as  including  "  all  articles  used  for  food, 
drink,  confectionery,  or  condiment." 

Since  all  confections  are  artificial  products,  there  is  no  natural 
guide  to  the  establishment  of  any  direct  standards  of  food 
value,  and  as  yet  no  standards  other  than  those  intended  to 
exclude  deleterious  substances  have  been  established. 

Methods  of  making  the  different  types  of  candies  and  other 
confections  do  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  work.  The 
manufacture  of  the  sugars,  sucrose  and  commercial  glucose, 
which  are  the  chief  ingredients  of  confectionery,  has  already  been 
discussed.  Perhaps  the  only  other  ingredient  which  is  commonly 
used  in  confectionery  in  suflScient  quantity  to  have  a  significant 
bearing  upon  the  food  value  of  the  product  is  chocolate. 

Chocolate  is  made  from  the  cocoa  bean,  the  seed  of  Theobroma 
cacao,  a  tree  native  to  Central  America  and  grown  only  in 
tropical  regions.  The  seeds  are  borne  in  large  pulpy  fruit,  each 
about  lo  inches  long  and  4  inches  thick  and  containing  20  to 
40  seeds.  At  the  proper  stage  of  maturity,  the  fruit  is  cut  from 
the  tre^,  split  open,  and  the  seeds  (cocoa  beans)  removed.  These 
seeds  are  sometimes  dried  at  once  in  the  sun,  but  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  better-flavored  product  are  commonly  first  allowed 
to  undergo  a  fermentation  process.      After  drying  in  the  sun, 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  437 

the  beans  are  roasted  in  revolving  steel  cylinders,  after  which 
the  hulls  are  removed  by  machinery.  The  beans  are  then 
crushed  and  freed  from  the  germs.  The  roasted  and  coarsely 
crushed  product  freed  from  hulls  and  germs  is  known  as  cocoa 
nibs.  The  nibs  are  thoroughly  ground  in  stone  mills,  the 
material  being  reduced  to  a  thin  paste  which  on  cooling  sets 
to  a  hard  cake.  This  is  known  as  unsweetened  or  plain  chocolate 
and  has  approximately  the  composition : 

Per  Cent 

Water 3 

Protein 12 

Theobromine i 

Fat SO 

Fiber 3 

Carbohydrates  (other  than  fiber) 28 

Ash 3 

About  one  half  of  the  fat  contained  in  plain  chocolate  can  be 
removed  by  pressing. 

The  fat  thus  obtained  is  a  soft  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures 
and  is  known  as  cocoa  butter. 

Breakfast  cocoa  is  obtained  by  grinding  to  an  exceedingly 
fine  powder  the  residue  from  which  more  or  less  of  the  cocoa 
butter  has  been  expressed. 

In  confectionery  sweetened  chocolate  is  often  mixed  with 
cocoa  butter,  especially  when  a  glossy  chocolate  covering  for 
candies  is  desired. 

According  to  the  definitions  and  standards  formulated  by  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  and  more  recently 
(Food  Inspection  Decision  136,  June  191 1)  indorsed  by  the  Board 
of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection,  the  names  "  chocolate,^'  "  plain 
chocolate,"  "  bitter  chocolate,"  "  chocolate  liquor,"  and  "  bitter 
chocolate  coatings  "  are  applied  to  the  solid  or  plastic  mass  ob- 
tained by  grinding  cocoa  nibs  without  removal  of  fat  or  other 
constituents  except  the  germ,  containing  not  more  than  3  per 
cent  of  ash  insoluble  in  water,  3.50  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  and 
9  per  cent  of  starch,  and  not  less  than  45  per  cent  of  cocoa  fat. 


438  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

"  Sweet  chocolate  "  and  "  sweet  chocolate  coatings  "  are  terms 
applied  to  chocolate  mixed  with  sugar  (sucrose),  with  or  without 
the  addition  of  cocoa  butter,  spices,  or  other  flavoring  materials, 
and  contain  in  the  sugar  and  fat-free  residue  no  higher  per- 
centage of  either  ash,  fiber,  or  starch  than  is  found  in  the  sugar 
and  fat-free  residue  of  chocolate. 

Cocoa  and  powdered  cocoa  are  terms  applied  to  cocoa  nibs, 
with  or  without  the  germ,  deprived  of  a  portion  of  its  fat  and 
finely  pulverized,  and  contain  percentages  of  ash,  crude  fiber, 
and  starch  corresponding  to  those  in  chocolate  after  correction 
for  fat  removed. 

Sweet  cocoa  and  sweetened  cocoa  are  terms  apphed  to  cocoa 
mixed  with  sugar  (sucrose),  and  contain  not  more  than  60  per 
cent  of  sugar  (sucrose),  and  in  the  sugar  and  fat-free  residue  no 
higher  percentage  of  either  ash,  crude  fiber,  or  starch  than  is 
found  in  the  sugar  and  fat-free  residue  of  chocolate. 

Cocoa  nibs  and  cracked  cocoa  are  the  roasted  broken  seeds 
of  the  cacao  tree  freed  from  shell  or  husk. 

Milk  chocolate  and  milk  cocoa,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board, 
should  contain  not  less  than  12  per  cent  of  milk  solids,  and  the 
so-called  nut  chocolates  should  contain  substantial  quantities  of 
nuts.  If  sugar  is  added,  for  example,  to  milk  chocolate,  it  should 
be  labeled  "sweet  milk  chocolate,"  "sweet  nut  chocolate,"  etc. 

When  cocoa  is  treated  with  an  alkali  or  an  alkaline  salt,  as 
in  the  so-called  Dutch  process,  and  the  finished  cocoa  contains 
increased  mineral  matter  as  the  result  of  this  treatment,  but  no 
alkali  as  such  is  present,  the  label  should  bear  a  statement  to 
the  effect  that  the  cocoa  contains  added  mineral  ingredients, 
stating  the  amount.  Cocoas  and  chocolates  containing  an 
appreciable  amount  of  free  alkali  are  adulterated.  In  the  opin- 
ion of ,  the  Board,  cocoa  not  treated  with  alkali  is  not  soluble 
in  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the  term  and  after  treatment  with 
alkali  shows  essentially  the  same  lack  of  solubility.  To  designate 
the  alkali-treated  cocoa  as  "  soluble  "  cocoa  is  therefore  held  to 
be  misleading  and  deceptive. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY 


439 


The  manufacture  of  confectionery  has  become  an  industry 
of  considerable  magnitude.  According  to  the  Census  of  Manu- 
factures the  wholesale  value  of  confectionery  made  in  manu- 
facturing establishments  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was  $134- 
796,000.  Manufacturers  of  corn  sirup  estimate  the  annual 
production  of  candy  in  the  United  States  at  about  800,000,000 
pounds  and  the  amount  of  corn  sirup  or  commercial  glucose  used 
in  making  this  candy  at  about  200,000,000  pounds. 

The  average  composition  of  miscellaneous  sugars,  starches, 
and  confectionery  as  estimated  by  Atwater  and  Bryant  is 
shown  in  Table  52.  The  fuel  values  have  been  recalculated  by 
the  use  of  the  modern  factors  as  already  explained. 

Table  52.      Average  Composition  of  Sugars,  Starches,  etc. 


U 

06  0  Si 

ft 

s 

B  0 

sea 

tu 

OS  ?:_ 

SsB 

n 

Description 

p 

1 

1 
0 

? 

b 

00  2 

< 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cal. 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

SUGARS,   STARCHES,  ETC. 

• 

Candy   

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

96.0 

— 

— 

1743 

Honey 

17 

— 

18.2 

•4 

— 

81.2 

— 

.2 

1480 

Molasses,  cane    .... 

IS 

— 

25-1 

2.4 

— 

69-3 

— 

3-2 

1300 

Starch,  arrowroot    .     .     . 

I 

— 

2-3 

— 

— 

97-5 

— 

.2 

1770 

Starch,  cornstarch   .     .     . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

90.0 

— 



163s 

Starch,  manioca       .     .     . 

I 

— 

10.5 

•.S 

.1 

88:8 

— 

.1 

1625 

Starch,  tapioca    .... 

7 

— 

11.4 

•4 

.1 

88.0 

e).7 

.1 

1608 

Sugar,    coffee    or    brown 

sugar        

328 

— 

— 

•  — 

— 

95-0 

— 

— 

1723 

Sugar,  granulated    .     .     . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

lOO.O 

— 

—      1814 

Sugar,  maple'      .... 

— 

— 

S-o 

— 

— 

93c 

— 

— 

1685 

Sugar,  powdered      .     .     . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[OO.O 

— 



1814 

Sirup,  maple^       .... 

— 

— 

34-2 

— 

— 

640 

— 



1160 

Chocolate        

2 

— 

5-9 

12.Q 

48.7 

30-3 

— 

2.2 

2772 

Cocoa 

3 

— 

4.6 

2X.6 

28.Q 

37-7 

— 

7.2 

2256 

>  Data  from  Snell. 


440  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Place  of  Sugars  in  the  Diet 

Dogmatic  statements  regarding  the  proper  place  of  sugars 
in  the  diet  are  apt  to  be  seriously  misleading.  The  problem 
is  complicated  and  the  evidence  in  many  respects  is  still 
obscure. 

Until  relatively  recent  times  sugar  was  too  expensive  to 
be  used  freely  by  most  people  but  with  the  development 
of  the  industry  and  the  cheapening  of  the  product  the  con- 
sumption of  sugar  has  increased  at  an  exceedingly  rapid 
rate. 

The  thoughtful  student  of  food  problems  must  regard  this 
development  with  mixed  emotions.  The  cheapening  of  a  staple 
article  of  food,  which  is  almost  universally  popular  and  which, 
like  the  refined  sugar  of  commerce,  is  of  uniform  and  well-known 
composition  and  practically  free  from  danger  of  adulteration  or 
harmful  deterioration,  would  be  a  source  of  great  satisfaction 
but  for  the  fact  that  refined  sugar  constitutes  an  extreme  case 
of  a  one-sided  food,  its  sole  nutritive  function  being  to  serve  as 
fuel  so  that,  as  the  energy  requirement  of  the  body  is  met  to 
a  larger  and  larger  extent  by  the  consumption  of  refined  sugar 
there  is  a  constantly  increasing  danger  of  unbalancing  the  diet 
and  making  it  deficient  in  some  of  the  substances  which  are 
needed  for  the  building  and  repair  of  body  tissue  and  for  the 
regulation  of  physiological  processes. 

The  fuel  value  of  sugar  is  about  1800  Calories  per  poimd, 
so  if  as  estimated  the  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States 
now  amounts  to  85  pounds  per  capita  per  year,  the  energy 
obtained  from  eating  sugar  must  amount  to  about  420  Calories 
per  capita  per  day.  If  the  per  capita  energy  requirement  be 
estimated  at  about  2000  Calories  per  day  ^  it  follows  that  about 

'  If  3000  and  2400  Calories  jier  day  be  accepted  as  the  average  requirements  of 
working  men  and  women  respectively,  it  seems  probable  that  the  per  capita  require- 
ment of  the  entire  population,  of  which  20.5  per  cent  are  below  15  years  of  age,  will 
not  exceed  2000  Calories  per  day. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  441 

one  fifth  of  the  energy  requirement  is  being  met  by  eating  sugar 
(of  course  not  all  of  this  sugar  appears  on  the  table  as  such) 
and  that  the  intake  of  protein,  phosphorus,  calcium,  potassium, 
iron,  and  other  essential  elements,  and  of  such  important 
though  imperfectly  understood  substances  as  the  lipoids  and 
vitamines  is  on  the  whole  about  one  tenth  lower  than  would 
be  the  case  if  the  sugar  were  reduced  one  half  and  the  energy 
now  derived  from  sugar  were  supplied  by  an  increased  consump- 
tion of  the  other  articles  of  food.  Are  we  to  assume  that  the 
ordinary  dietary  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  furnishes 
such  an  abundance  of  all  the  essential  elements  and  each  specific 
necessary  compound  that  a  difference  of  10  per  cent  in  the  intake 
is  of  no  consequence?  The  investigations  of  recent  years  in- 
dicate clearly  that  no  such  assumption  is  justified.  As  regards 
some  of  the  elements  such  as  calcium  and  phosphorus  there  is 
very  little  margin  of  safety  in  the  majority  of  American  dietaries. 
From  this  standpoint  it  would  be  an  improvement  if  without 
other  change  in  dietary  habits  the  sugar  consumption  were 
reduced,  say  to  one  half  the  present  rate,  and  the  same  amount 
of  energy  obtained  by  increasing  the  consumption  of  other  food 
materials. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  in  any  other  country  the  increase  in 
consumption  of  refined  sugar  during  the  past  two  or  three  genera- 
tions has  been  so  rapid  as  in  the  United  States.  The  present 
per  capita  consumption  of  sugar  in  several  of  the  chief  countries 
of  the  world  is  given  by  Browne  as  follows : 

PotJNDS 

England 95 

United  States 85 

Germany 49 

France • 43 

Austria 28 

Russia 24 

Turkey 20 

Spain 16 

Italy II 


442  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  per  capita  consumption  of  sugar  in 
continental  Europe  is  not  over  half  that  in  the  United  States. 
England  reports  a  larger  per  capita  consumption  but  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  these  statistics  include  both  the  sugar  eaten  as 
such  and  that  used  in  the  preparation  of  manufactured  foods. 
Since  England  exports  large  amounts  of  jam,  marmalade,  and 
other  food  products  containing  much  added  sugar,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  actual  per  capita  consumption  of  sugar  is 
any  larger  in  England  than  in  the  United  States. 

The  objection  to  the  too  free  use  of  sugar,  on  the  ground  that 
it  serves  only  as  fuel  and  may  replace  to  an  undue  extent  other 
food  materials  which  meet  other  nutritive  requirements,  applies 
equally  to  commercial  glucose  and  to  most  candy.  It  does 
not  hold  to  the  same  extent  as  regards  molasses  and  those  sirups 
which  contain  the  natural  ash  constituents  of  the  plant  juices. 
Probably  the  most  desirable  of  all  materials  with  which  to 
satisfy  a  desire  for  sweet-tasting  foods  are  the  fruits  several  of 
which  contain  from  lo  to  15  per  cent  of  sugars  in  the  fresh 
state  and  from  50  to  75  per  cent  when  dried.  Some  of  the  ad- 
vantageous characteristics  of  fruit  as  food  have  been  discussed 
in  Chapter  IX. 

In  addition  to  the  question  to  what  extent  sugar  may  be 
allowed  to  displace  other  foods  without  danger  of  making  the 
diet  one-sided,  there  are  several  other  considerations  which 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  attempting  to  assign  to  sugar  its 
proper  place  as  a  food. 

Sucrose  entering  the  blood  as  such  is  not  utilized;  only  the 
products  of  digestion  are  normally  absorbed  into  the  body. 
The  digestion  of  sugar  is  a  relatively  simple  process  since  it 
involves  only  one  hydrolysis.  This  digestive  hydrolysis,  how- 
ever, isqiot  effected  until  the  sugar  reaches  the  intestine.  Hence 
nearly  all  the  sugar  eaten  remains  as  such  in  the  stomach  unless 
it  is  decomposed  there  by  the  action  of  micro-organisms.  Herter 
found  that  cane  sugar  is  more  apt  to  undergo  fermentation  in 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  443 

the  stomach  than  is  milk  sugar.  The  products  yielded  by  the 
more  common  types  of  fermentation,  of  which  lactic  acid  is 
perhaps  the  best  example,  are  not  in  any  ordinary  sense  poison- 
ous but  may  be  irritating  when  formed  in  large  amount.  Aside 
from  the  question  of  fermentation,  sugar  is  often  directly  irritat- 
ing to  the  stomach,  for  unless  much  diluted  with  other  food  or 
with  water  it  is  likely  in  some  part  of  the  stomach  to  furnish 
a  sugar  solution  of  sufficient  concentration  to  result  in  a  distinct 
abstraction  of  water  from  the  mucous  membrane.  The  effect  of 
such  abstraction  of  water  from  the  mucous  membrane  on  a  small 
scale  is  easily  observed  by  holding  a  piece  of  hard  candy  in  one 
side  of  the  mouth  for  some  time  without  moving  it.  When  the 
same  action  takes  place  on  a  much  larger  scale  in  the  stomach 
and  especially  when,  from  frequent  free  use  of  sugar,  it  occurs 
repeatedly,  some  injury  to  the  stomach  must  be  anticipated. 

The  fact  that  sugar  may  have  a  disturbing  influence  upon 
digestion  does  not  imply  that  the  sugar  itself  is  at  all  likely  to 
escape  digestion.  The  readiness  with  which  sugar  is  hydrolyzed 
by  the  sugar-splitting  enzyme  of  the  intestinal  juice  combined 
with  the  susceptibility  of  sugar  to  the  attack  of  bacteria  makes 
it  unlikely  that  much  sugar  will  pass  through  the  digestive 
tract  unchanged.  In  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,^  Mrs.  Abel  cites  experiments  in 
which  5  ounces  of  sugar  per  day,  fed  to  healthy  men  as  part 
of  a  simple  mixed  diet,  showed  an  average  digestibility  of  98.9 
per  cent.  According  to  the  same  authority  3  or  4  ounces  per  day 
"  seem  to  be  digested  by  the  healthy  adult  without  difficulty." 

Athletes  and  farm  laborers  at  hard  work  have  in  many  in- 
stances been  observed  to  take  large  quantities  of  sugar,  often 
as  lemonade  or  in  admixture  with  other  fruit  juices,  without 
any  apparent  ill  effects.  In  such  cases  the  sugar  is  employed 
to  furnish  the  extra  energy  required  for  the  muscular  activity 
and  so  does  not  necessarily  tend  toward  a  sub-normal  intake 

1  Farmers'  Bulletin  535,  June,  igij. 


444  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

of  the  foods  which  are  valuable  for  their  ash  constituents  as  well 
as  their  energy.  In  fact  when  the  sugar  is  taken  with  fruit 
juices  the  consumption  of  the  latter  may  thereby  be  increased. 

The  paragraphs  which  follow  are  taken  from  Mrs.  Abel's 
general  conclusions  in  the  Government  bulletin  referred  to  above. 

One  may  say  in  general  that  the  wholesomeness  of  sweetened 
foods  and  their  utilization  by  the  system  is  largely  a  question  of 
quantity  and  concentration.  For  instance,  a  simple  pudding 
flavored  with  sugar  rather  than  heavily  sweetened  is  considered 
easy  of  digestion,  but  when  more  sugar  is  used,  with  the  addition 
of  eggs  and  fat,  we  have  as  the  result  highly  concentrated  forms 
of  food,  which  can  be  eaten  with  advantage  only  in  moderate 
quantities  and  which  are  entirely  unsuited  to  children  and 
invalids. 

It  is  true  that  the  harvester,  lumberman,  and  others  who  do 
hard  work  in  the  open  air  consume  great  amounts  of  food  con- 
taining considerable  quantities  of  sugar,  such  as  pie  and  dough- 
nuts, and  apparently  with  impunity;  but  it  is  equally  true 
that  people  living  an  indoor  life  find  that  undue  amounts  of 
pie,  cake,  and  pudding,  with  highly  sweetened  preserved  fruit, 
and  sugar  in  large  amounts  on  cooked  cereals,  almost  always 
bring  indigestion  sooner  or  later. 

From  a  gastronomic  point  of  view  it  would  seem  also  that 
in  the  American  cuisine  sugar  is  used  with  too  many  kinds  of 
food,  with  a  consequent  loss  of  variety  and  piquancy  of  flavor 
in  the  different  dishes.  The  nutty  flavor  of  grains  and  the 
natural  taste  of  mild  fruits  are  very  often  concealed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  large  quantities  of  sugar. 

REFERENCES 

I 

Abel.     Sugar  as  Food.   United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers' 

Bulletin  535. 
iBLAKEY.     The  United  States  Sugar  Beet  Industry. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,   AND   CONFECTIONERY  445 

Browne.     Handbook  of  Sugar  Analysis. 

Classen.     Beet  Sugar  Manufacture  (translated  by  Hall  and  Rolfe). 

Deerr.     Cane  Sugar  Manufacture. 

Deerr.     Sugar  and  the  Sugar  Cane. 

Ellis.     An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Sugar  as  a  Commodity. 

Geerlings.     Cane  Sugar  and  its  Manufacture. 

Geerlings.     The  World's  Cane  Sugar  Industry,  Past  and  Present. 

LiPPMANN.     Chemie  der  Zuckerarten. 

Rogers  and  Aubert.     Industrial  Chemistry. 

Thorpe.     Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry. 

Tollens.     Handbuch  der  Kohlenhydrate. 

Walker.    The  Sugar  Industry  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Ware.     Beet  Sugar  Manufacture  and  Refining. 

Wichelhaus.     Der  Starkezucker :  Chemische  und  technologisch  behandelt. 


II 

Browne  and  Blouin.    The  Chemistry  of  the  Sugar  Cane  and  its  Products 

in  Louisiana.     Louisiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  91 

(1907). 
Browne.     Chemical    Analj'sis  and    Composition    of    American  Honeys. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin 

no  (1908).  . 

Sy.    History,  Manufacture,  and  Analysis  of  Maple  Products.    Journal 

Franklin  Institute,  Vol.  166,  pages  249-280,  321-352,  433-445  (1908). 
Zerban.     Investigations  on  the  Use  of  Sulphur  and  its  Combinations  in  the 

Sugar  House.     Louisiana  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   Bulletin 

103  (1908). 
CowLES.     Suggested  Standards  for  Maple  Sugar  and  Syrup.     Journal  of 

Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  x,  pages  773-775  (1909). 
HoRNE.     The  Sugar  Industry  and  its  Relation  to  the  United  States.    Jour- 
nal of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  i,  pages  3-4  (1909). 
Wagner.     The   American    Industry   of   Corn   Products.     Journal  of  the 

Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  Vol.  28,  pages  343-348  (1909). 
Bryan.     Maple  Sap  Syrup.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  134  (1910). 
Kaufmann.     Maize  Products  and  Maize  Starch  and  its  Products.    Journal 

of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  Vol.  29,  pages  527-531  (1910). 
Shredded  Sugar  Cane.     Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 

Vol.  2,  page  558  (1910). 


446  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Browne.     The  Chemistry  of  Raw  Sugar  Production.     School  of  Mines 

Quarterly,  Vol.  32,  pages  217-234  (191 1). 
Bryan.     Composition  of  Commercial  Glucose  and  Starch  Sugars.     Journal 

of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Vol.  172,  pages  337-342  (1911). 
Herstein.     Centenary  of  Glucose  and  Early  History  of  Starch.     Journal  of 

Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  158-168  (191 1). 
HoRNE.     Sugar  Refining.   School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  Vol.  32,  pages  235-243 

(1911). 
KoppESCHAAR.     Requirements  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Factory  as  Compared  with 

the  Cane  Sugar  Establishment.     International  Sugar  Journal,  \'ol.  13, 

pages  527,  593  (191 1). 
KiJSTENMACHER.     Chemistry  of  the  Formation  of  Honey.     Biochemisches 

Zeitschrift,  Vol.  30,  pages  237-254  (191 1). 
Wachtel.     Development  of  the  Sugar  Industry.     Journal  of  Industrial 

and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  335-339  (191 1). 
Wisconsin  Cane  Fiber  Experiment.     Louisiana  Planter,  Vol.  46,  page  39; 

Chemical  Abstracts,  Vol.  5,  page  1205  (191 1). 
Bauer.     Effect  of  Acidity  and  Time  in  the  Roasting  of  Dextrins.     Original 

Communications,  Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 

Vol.  13,  pages  9-14  (1912). 
Bryan.     Composition  of  Imported  Honeys.     United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  154  (191 2). 
Bryant.     Composition  of  Commercial  Glucose.     Original  Communications, 

Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  13,  pages 

47-56  (1912). 
Deerr.     Cane    Sugar    Manufacture    in  the    Hawaiian    Islands.     Original 

Communications,  Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 

Vol.  8,  pages  7-12  (1912). 
Defren.     Presence   of   Maltose   in   Acid   Hydrolyzed    Starch   Products. 

Original  Communications,  Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied 

Chemistry,  Vol.  13,  pages  111-112  (1912). 
Humphreys.     The   Corn   Products   Industry.     Original   Communications, 

Eighth  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  13,  pages 

189-193  (1912). 
Rolfe.   Notes  on  Commercial  Dextrins.  Ibid.,  Vol.  13,  pages  237-245  (191 2). 
Rolfe.     Sugar  Manufacture  in  Porto  Rico.    Ibid.,  Vol.  8,  pages  59-74 

(19^2). 
WARREN'and  Grove.     Malic  Acid  in  Maple  Sugar  "Sand."     Ibid.,  Vol. 

6,  pages  265-271  (191 2). 
Browne.     Manufacture  of  Raw  Sugar  in  the  Philippine  and  Hawaiian 

Islands.     School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  January,  1913. 


SUGARS,   SIRUPS,  AND   CONFECTIONERY  447 

Browne.  By-Products  of  Sugar  Manufacture  and  their  Utilization. 
School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  July,  1913. 

Davoll.  Technical  Accounting  and  Chemical  Control  in  Sugar  Manufac- 
ture.    Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages 

231-234  (1913)- 
Browne.     The  Development   of  the   Sugar  Industry.     School   of   Mines 

Quarterly,  April,  1914. 
Snell  and  Scott.     The  Range  of  Variation  of  Analytical  Values  in  Genuine 

Maple  Sirup.     Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  6, 

pages  216-222  (1914). 
Snell  and  LocKHEAD.     Composition  of  Maple  Sugar  "Sand."    Journal  of 

Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  6,  pages  301-302  (1914). 


CHAPTER  XII 

FOOD   ADJUNCTS  AND   UNCLASSIFIED   FOOD 
MATERIALS 

Many  articles  commonly  classed  as  foods  are  consumed  rather 
for  their  condimental  properties  than  for  nutritive  value.  In 
commerce  and  in  food  legislation  there  is  usually  no  attempt 
to  define  the  boundary  between  foods  and  condiments.  Thus 
it  will  be  remembered  that  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  so  defines 
the  word  food  as  to  cover  all  articles  used  as  food,  drink,  con- 
fection, or  condiment.  Some  of  the  condiments  offer  consider- 
able opportunity  for  adulteration,  and  in  the  enforcement  of  the 
pure  food  laws  this  group  of  materials  usually  receives  a  large 
share  of  attention.  Since  condiments  and  other  food  adjuncts  are 
with  few  exceptions  not  of  great  importance  either  economically 
or  as  factors  in  the  food  supply,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to 
discuss  them  here  in  the  manner  in  which  the  different  types  of 
food  have  been  discussed;  only  brief  descriptive  statements 
will  be  given  and  in  many  cases  these  will  be  limited  to  the 
official  definition  or  standard,  since  interest  centers  in  the 
question  of  adulteration. 

Salt 

Salt  is  prepared  in  many  localities  throughout  the  world, 
sometimes  by  mining  rock  salt,  sometimes  by  pumping  brine 
out  of  salt  wells,  sometimes  by  impounding  the  water  of  salt 
lakes  o'f  of  the  ocean  and  allowing,  it  to  evaporate  in  the  sun, 
then  refining  the  product  by  recrystallization. 

In  the  United  States,  salt  is  produced  chiefly  by  Michigan, 

448 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS  449 

New  York,  Kansas,  and  Ohio,  which  together  furnish  about 
nine  tenths  of  the  total  output.^ 

According  to  Bailey  most  of  the  salts  on  the  market  contain 
from  97  to  99  per  cent  of  sodium  chloride. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  introduction  of  impurities  which  would 
alter  the  flavor,  careful  butter-makers  pay  much  attention  to 
the  purity  of  the  salt  which  they  use,  and  thus  the  term  "dairy 
salt"  has  come  to  signify  as  high  a  degree  of  purity  as  is  usually 
attempted  commercially.  An  analysis  of  high  grade  dairy 
salt  has  been  given  in  the  account  of  butter  manufacture 
(page  371). 

According  to  the  standards  of  the  Association  of  OflScial 
Agricultural  Chemists:  Table  salt,  dairy  salt,  is  fine-grained 
crystalline  salt  containing,  on  a  water-free  basis,  not  more  than 
1.4  per  cent  of  calcium  sulphate,  nor  more  than  0.5  per  cent  of 
calcium  and  magnesium  chloride,  nor  more  than  o.i  per  cent 
of  matters  insoluble  in  water. 

In  order  to  prevent  salt,  which  is  to  be  exposed  to  atmospheric 
conditions  on  the  table,  from  becoming  caked  through  ab- 
sorption of  moisture,  it  is  sometimes  mixed  with  a  small  amount 
of  starch  or  of  calcium  phosphate.  In  order  to  avoid  conflict 
with  the  standard  set  by  the  Official  Chemists,  salt  thus  pre- 
pared should  be  labeled  to  show  its  nature  and  composition. 

Spices 

The  spices  owe  their  condimental  properties  most  often, 
probably,  to  volatile  oils,  but  also  in  several  cases  to  other  sub- 
stances, as  will  be  seen  from  the  descriptions  which  follow. 
Adulteration  of  whole  spice  usually  takes  the  form  of  abstracting 
a  part  of  the  valuable  component,  while  ground  spices  are  often 
adulterated  by  addition  of  ground  hulls  (or  other  fibrous  material) 
or  of  starchy  materials  such  as  flour,  and  sometimes  of  mineral 

1  Bailey,  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  igo3. 
2  G 


45° 


FOOD    PRODUCTS 


matter.  Where  standards  have  been  adopted  it  will  be  seen  thai; 
they  usually  set  limits  to  one  or  more  of  these  components. 

Allspice,  or  pimento,  is  obtained  from  an  evergreen  tree, 
belonging  to  the  same  family  with  the  clove,  which  is  found  in 
the  West  Indies  and  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  Jamaica. 

The  commercial  spice  is  obtained  by  drying  the  berries, 
which,  in  order  to  avoid  loss  of  aroma,  are  gathered  when  they 
have  grown  to  full  size  but  before  they  are  fully  ripe. 

The  average  percentages  of  some  constituents  in  samples 
of  pure  whole  allspice  analyzed  by  Winton,  Mitchell,  and  Ogden 
at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  were  as  follows : 


Moisture 

Total  ash 

Ash  soluble  in  water  .... 
Ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid 

Volatile  oil 

Nonvolatile  oils  and  fats 

Alcohol  extract 

Starch  (by  diastase  method) 

Crude  fiber  

Protein  (Nitrogen  X  6.25)     .     . 
Quercitannic  acid 


Per  Cent 
9.78 

4-47 
2.47 
0.03 
4-05 
5-84 
11.79 

3-04 
22.39 

5-75 
9.71 


The  volatile  oil  of  allspice  is  similar  to  that_of  cloves  and 
according  to  Leach  is  composed  of  eugenol  (C10H12O2)  and  a 
hydrocarbon  belonging  to  the  sesquiterpenes  whose  exact 
chemical  constitution  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

According  to  the  definition  and  standard  of  the  Association 
of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists:  Allspice,  pimento,  is  the 
dried  fruit  of  the  Pimenta  pimenta  (L.)  Karst.,  and  contains 
not  less  than  8  per  cent  of  quercitannic  acid,  not  more  than  6 
per  cent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than  0.5  per  cent  of  ash  insoluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  crude 
fiber. 

Anise  is  the  fruit  of  the  Pimpinella  anisum  L. 

Bay  leaf  is  the  dried  leaf  of  Laurus  nobilis  L. 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS  45 1 

Capers  are  the  flower  buds  of  a  shrub,  Capparis  spinosa  L., 
and  are  commonly  pickled  in  vinegar. 

Caraway  is  the  fruit  (so-called  seed)  of  Carum  carui  L.,  an 
umbelliferous  plant  growing  chiefly  in  the  northern  and  central 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  dry  caraways  yield  3  to  6  per 
cent  of  a  volatile  oil  which  is  said  to  contain  cymene,  cymene 
aldehyde,  carvone,  and  limonene. 

Cassia  is  the  dried  bark  of  Cinnamonutn  cassia  and  some  other 
species  of  the  same  genus.  Its  condimental  properties  are  due 
to  the  volatile  oil,  which  may  be  obtained  as  such  in  commerce 
under  the  name  of  oil  of  cassia,  and  of  which  the  chief  component 
is  cinnamic  aldehyde.  Cassia  buds  are  the  dried  immature 
buds  of  species  of  Cinnamonum. 

Cayenne,  or  cayenne  pepper,  is  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum 
frutescens,  Capsicum  baccatum,  or  some  other  small  fruited 
species  of  capsicum,  and  owes  its  pungency  largely  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  characteristic  alkaloid  capsicine. 

Cinnamon  in  the  stricter  use  of  the  term  (true  cinnamon) 
is  the  dried  inner  bark  of  Cinnamonum  zeylanicum  (Beyne). 
Commonly,  however,  the  term  cinnamon  is  applied  to  the  dried 
bark  of  any  species  of  Cinnamonum  from  which  the  outer  layers 
may  or  may  not  have  been  removed.  Cinnamon,  hke  cassia, 
owes  its  characteristic  properties  to  a  volatile  oil  of  which  cin- 
namic aldehyde  is  the  chief  component. 

Ground  cinnamon  or  ground  cassia  is  a  powder  consisting  of 
cinnamon,  cassia,  cassia  buds,  or  a  mixture  of  these. 

Cloves  are  the  dried  flower  buds  of  the  clove  plant  {Caryo- 
phyllus  aromaticus,  or  Eugenia  caryophyllata)  which  is  an  ever- 
green tree  growing  20  to  40  feet  high  and  cultivated  largely 
in  Brazil,  Ceylon,  India,  Zanzibar,  Mauritius,  and  the  West 
Indies. 

The  average  percentages  of  the  more  prominent  constituents 
as  found  by  Winton,  Ogden,  and  Mitchell  in  analysis  of  eight 
samples  of  whole  cloves  of  known  purity  were  as  follows : 


452  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Per  Cent 

Moisture »  .     .     .  7.81 

Total  ash 5.92 

Ash  soluble  in  water        3.58 

Ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid      ....  0.06 

Volatile  oil 19.18 

Nonvolatile  oils  and  fats 6.49 

Alcohol  extract 14-87 

Starch  (by  diastase  method) 2.74 

Crude  fiber 8.10 

Protein  (Nitrogen  X  6.25) 6.18 

Quercitannic  acid 18.19 

The  condimental  property  of  cloves  is  chiefly  due  to  the  volatile 
oil,  which  consists  mainly  of  eugenol  with  smaller  quantities 
of  a  sesquiterpene  known  as  caryophylene.  Probably  however 
the  fixed  oils  and  resins  and  the  tannin  may  also  contribute  to 
the  characteristic  pungency  of  the  clove. 

According  to  the  standard  of  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists  cloves  must  contain  not  more  than  5  per 
cent  of  clove  stems,  not  less  than  10  per  cent  of  volatile  oil,  not 
less  than  12  per  cent  of  quercitannic  acid,  not  more  than 
8  per  cent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than  0.5  per  cent  of  ash  insol- 
uble in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of 
crude  fiber. 

Coriander  is  the  dried  fruit  of  Coriandrum  sativum  L. 

Cumin  seed  is  the  fruit  of  Cuminum  cyminum  L. 

Dill  seed  is  the  fruit  of  Anethum  graveolens  L. 

Fennel  is  the  fruit  of  Foeniculum  foeuiculum. 

Ginger  is  the  rhizome  or  root-stock  of  Zinziber  officinale  or 
Zinziber  zinziber,  an  annual  plant  growing  3  to  4  feet  high, 
a  native  of  India  and  China,  now  cultivated  also  in  tropical 
America,  Africa,  and  Australia. 

The' 'root  is  either  washed  or  peeled  (decorticated)  then 
dried  and  sometimes  bleached  or  sprinkled  with  carbonate  of 
lime.  Preserved  ginger  is  prepared  by  boiling  the  root  and  then 
treating  it  with  sugar  or  honey. 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS 


453 


Ginger  is  distinguished  by  high  starch  content  and  by  its 
volatile  oil  and  its  resinous  matter.  The  latter  is  most  abundant 
in  the  outer  layers,  and  so  is  largely  lost  when  the  roots  are  peeled 
or  decorticated. 

Winton,  Ogden,  and  Mitchell  analyzed  i8  samples  of  whole 
ginger  representing  both  white  and  black  varieties  with  the 
following  results : 


Moisture 

Total  ash    .     .     .     .     .     . 

Ash  soluble  in  water 
Ash  insoluble  in  HCl 

Lime  (CaO) 

Volatile  oil 

Nonvolatile  oils  and  fats  . 
Alcohol  extract  .... 
Starch  (by  diastase  method) 

Crude  fiber      

"  Protein  "  (Nitrogen  X  6.25) 
Cold  water  extract     .     .     . 


Maxim  Du 

Minimum 

11.72 

8.71 

9-35 

3-61 

4.09 

1-73 

2.29 

0.02 

3-53 

0.20 

3-09 

0.96 

5-42 

2.82 

6.58 

3-63 

60.31 

49-05 

5-50 

2-37 

9-75 

4.81 

17-55 

10.92 

Average 


10.44 

5-27 
2.71 
0.44 
0.80 

1-97 
4.10 
S.18 

54-53 
3-91 
7-74 

13-42 


According  to  the  standards  of  the  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists,  ginger  must  contain  not  less  than  42  per  cent  of  starch 
and  not  more  than  8  per  cent  of  crude  fiber,  6  per  cent  of  total 
ash,  I  per  cent  of  lime,  3  per  cent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid;  while  limed  (''bleached'^)  ginger  must  contain 
not  over  4  per  cent  of  lime  or  10  per  cent  of  total  ash  and  in 
other  respects  should  conform  to  the  standard  for  ginger. 

Horseradish  is  the  root  of  Roripa  armoracia  either  by  itself 
or  ground  and  mixed  with  vinegar. 

Mace  is  prepared  by  drying  the  arillus  which  surrounds  the 
nutmeg  kernel.  Mace  contains  notable  quantities  of  fixed  oils 
and  of  resinous  matter.  Its  volatile  oil  resembles  that  of  nut- 
meg.    It    contains    a    considerable    amount    of  carbohydrate, 


454  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

which  behaves  like  starch  in  analysis  but  gives  only  a  red  reaction 
with  iodine  and  is  called  an  amylodextrin. 

Four  samples  of  pure  Banda  or  Penang  mace  examined  by 
Winton,  Ogden,  and  Mitchell  gave  the  following  average  results : 

Moisture 11.05 

Total  ash 2.01 

Ash  soluble  in  water 1.13 

Ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid      ....  0.07 

Volatile  oil 7.58 

Nonvolatile  ether  extract 22.48 

Alcohol  extract 23.11 

Amylodextrin  (as  starch  by  diastase  method)    .  27.87 

Crude  fiber 3.20 

"Protein"  (Nitrogen  X  6.25) 6.47 

According  to  the  standard  of  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists  mace  should  contain  between  20  and  30 
per  cent  of  nonvolatile  ether  extract  and  not  more  than  3  per 
cent  of  total  ash,  0.5  per  cent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  or  10  per  cent  of  crude  fiber. 

Marjoram  is  the  leaf,  flower,  and  branch  of  Majorana 
major  ana. 

Mustard  seed  is  the  seed  of  Sinapis  alba  (white  mustard), 
Brassica  nigra  (black  mustard) ,  Brassica  juncea  (black  or  brown 
mustard).  These  are  annual  plants  belonging  to  the  family 
Cr^icifer(B. 

The  seeds  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  fatty  oil  of 
the  same  general  character  as  rapeseed  oil.  In  preparing  the 
ground  spice  the  seeds  are  crushed  and  the  hulls  are  usually 
separated  more  or  less  completely.  A  part  of  the  fatty  oil  is 
then  pressed  out  and  the  residual  mustard  cake  is  broken  up 
and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  which  is  the  mustard  flour  of 
commetce. 

Winton  and  Mitchell  made  partial  analyses  of  18  samples 
of  commercial  mustards,  believed  to  be  pure,  with  the  following 
results : 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS 


455 


Maximum 

Minimum 

Average 

Total  ash 

Per  cent 

7-35 
1.90 

28.10 
2.08 
4.87 

43-56 

Per  cent 
4.81 
0.00 

17.14 
0.28 
i-S8 

35-63 

Per  cent 

5-99 
0.56 

20.61 
1.07 
2.58 

39-57 

Volatile  oil 

Nonvolatile  ether  extract 

Starch  (by  diastase  method)     .... 
Crude  fiber 

"  Protein  "  (Nitrogen  X  6.25)  .     .     .     . 

While  mustard  seeds  contain  very  little  volatile  oil  as  such, 
there  are  present  substances  which,  under  the  influence  of 
enzymes  also  present,  readily  undergo  hydrolysis  with  formation 
of  volatile  oil. 

Black  mustard  seed  contains  sinigrin  (potassium  m)n-onate, 
KC10H16NS2O9),  a  glucoside  which  splits  yielding  glucose,  potas- 
sium acid  sulphate,  and  allyl  isothiocyanate  (C3H5CNS).  The 
last  named  is  called  "  mustard  oil  "  and  is  a  volatile  oily  liquid 
of  very  strong  odor  and  capable  of  forming  blisters  when  dropped 
on  the  skin. 

White  mustard  contains  a  different  glucoside,  sinalbin, 
C30H42N2S2O15.  This  substance  undergoes  hydrolysis  in  a 
manner  analogous  to  sinigrin,  and  when  thus  hydrolyzed 
yields  glucose,  sinapin  acid  sulphate  (C16H24NO5HSO4),  and 
sinalbin  mustard  oil  (C7H7ONCS).  The  latter  resembles  the 
volatile  oil  from  black  mustard  (allyl  isothiocyanate)  in 
pungency. 

According  to  the  standards  of  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists :  Ground  mustard  is  a  powder  made  from 
mustard  seed,  with  or  without  the  removal  of  the  hulls  and  a 
portion  of  the  fixed  oil,  and  contains  not  more  than  2.5  per  cent 
of  starch  and  not  more  than  8  per  cent  of  total  ash ;  prepared 
mustard^  German  mustard,  French  mustard,  mustard  paste,  is  a 
mixture  of  ground  mustard  seed  or  mustard  flour  with  salt,  spices 
and  vinegar,  and  contains  in  the  material  other  than  water, 


456 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


fat,  and  salt,  at  least  35  per  cent  of  protein  and  not  over  12  per 
cent  of  crude  fiber. 

Nutmeg  is  the  dried  seed  of  the  Myristica  fragrans,  a  tree 
native  to  the  Malay  archipelago,  which  somewhat  resembles  the 
orange  tree  in  appearance. 

The  nutmegs  are  prepared  for  commerce  by  drying,  usually 
after  washing  in  limewater,  or  are  powdered  with  air-slaked 
lime  after  drying. 

Winton,  Ogden,  and  Mitchel  analyzed  4  samples  of  nutmeg 
of  known  purity  with  the  following  maximum  and  minimum 
results : 


Maximum 

Minimum 

Percent 

Per  cent 

10.83 

S-79 

3.26 

2.13 

1.46 

0.82 

O.OI 

0.00 

6.94 

2.56 

36-94 

28.73 

17-38 

10.42 

24.20 

14.62 

3-72 

2-38 

7.00 

6.56 

Moisture 

Total  ash 

Ash  soluble  in  water   .... 
Ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid 

Volatile  oil 

Nonvolatile  ether  extract      .     . 

Alcohol  extract 

Starch  (by  diastase  method) 

Crude  fiber 

"  Protein  "  (Nitrogen  X  6.25)    . 


As  standardized  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists,  nutmeg  should  contain  not  less  than  25  per  cent  of 
nonvolatile  ether  extract,  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  total 
ash  nor  more  than  0.5  per  cent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  crude  fiber. 

Paprika  is  the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum  annuum,  or  some 
other  large  fruited  species  of  Capsicum,  excluding  seeds  and 
stems. 

Pepper  is  the  berry  of  a  climbing  plant  {Piper  nigrum) 
which  is  cultivated  in  tropical  countries.     Black  pepper  is  ob- 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS 


457 


tained  by  picking  the  berries  while  immature ;  white  pepper,  by 
allowing  the  berries  to  ripen  and  become  more  starchy.  The 
condimental  properties  are  attributed  chiefly  to  the  volatile 
oil,  a  hydrocarbon  of  the  formula  CioHie,  and  the  nitrogenous 
bases  piperidine  and  piperine.  Piperine  is  extracted  by  ether 
and  may  be  estimated  approximately  by  multiplying  the  nitrogen 
of  the  nonvolatile  ether  extract  by  the  factor  20.46. 

Analyses  by  Winton,  Ogden,  and  Mitchel,  and  by  Winton  and 
Bailey,  covering  20  samples  of  black  and  10  samples  of  white 
pepper,  and  representing  the  leading  varieties  imported  into  the 
United  States,  gave  the  following  average  results : 


Moisture 

Total  ash 

Ash  soluble  in  water 

Ash  insoluble  in  HCl 

Volatile  oil 

Nonvolatile  ether  extract 

Alcohol  extract 

Starch  (by  diastase  method) ....... 

Crude  fiber 

Total  nitrogen 

Nitrogen  in  nonvolatile  ether  extract  .... 

"  Protein  "  (Nitrogen  other  than  that  of  ether 

extract  X  6.25) 


"•93 


Black 

White 

Pepper 

Pepper 

Percent 

Percent 

11.86 

13-47 

510 

1-77 

2.60 

0.47 

0.70 

O.IO 

1.28 

0.73 

8.41 

6.91 

9.44 

7.66 

33-28 

56-47 

13.62 

3-14 

2.2s 

2.04 

0-33 

0.30 

10.89 


To  meet  the  standards  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agri- 
cultural Chemists:  Black  pepper  must  contain  not  less  than  6 
per  cent  of  nonvolatile  ether  extract,  not  less  than  25  per  cent 
of  starch,  not  more  than  7  per  cent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than 
2  per  cent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more 
than  15  per  cent  of  crude  fiber,  and  100  parts  of  the  nonvolatile 
ether  extract  must  contain  not  less  than  3.25  parts  of  nitrogen ; 


458  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

white  pepper  must  contain  not  less  than  6  per  cent  of  non- 
volatile ether  extract,  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  starch, 
not  more  than  4  per  cent  of  total  ash,  not  more  than  0.5 
per  cent  of  ash  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  not  more 
than  5  per  cent  of  crude  fiber,  and  100  parts  of  nonvolatile  ether 
extract  must  contain  not  less  than  4  parts  of  nitrogen. 

Saffron  is  the  dried  stigma  of  Crocus  sativus  L. 

Sage  is  the  leaf  of  Salvia  officinalis  L. 

Savory,  summer  savory,  is  the  leaf,  blossom,  and  branch  of 
Satureja  hortensis  L. 

Thyme  is  the  leaf  and  tip  of  blooming  branches  of  Thymus 
vulgaris  L. 

Flavoring  Extracts 

A  large  number  of  flavoring  extracts  are  available  in  the 
market,  the  extracts  of  vanilla  and  of  lemon  being  most 
commonly  used. 

Vanilla  extract  is  made  from  the  vanilla  bean,  the  fruit  of 
a  climbing  vine.  Vanilla  planifolia,  which  belongs  botanically 
to  the  orchids  and  is  indigenous  to  tropical  America.  The 
vanilla  beans  grown  in  Mexico  are  considered  the  finest.  When 
the  pods  turn  brown  they  are  gathered  and  allowed  to  under- 
go a  process  of  fermentation  which  develops  the  characteristic 
aroma.  The  beans  are  then  dried  for  market  and  the  commercial 
extract  is  made  by  cutting  them  up  and  soaking  them  in  alcohol, 
usually  with  addition  of  sugar.  The  odor  of  vanilla  and  vanilla 
extracts  is  due  chiefly  to  vanillin  (CgHgOa). 

Lemon  extract  is  made  by  soaking  lemon  peel  in  strong  alcohol 
and  owes  its  flavor  chiefly  to  the  volatile  oil  of  the  lemon  peel, 
of  which  the  chief  component  is  citral  (CioHieO). 

Adulteration  of  flavoring  extracts  usually  takes  the  form 
either  of  substituting  artificial  or  inferior  substances  or  of 
making  the  extract  unjustifiably  dilute.  The  question  of  the 
proper  concentration  must  necessarily  be  fixed  somewhat  arbi- 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS  459 

trarily.     The  limits  fixed  by  the  Association  of  OflScial  Agri- 
cultural Chemists  have  usually  been  upheld  by  the  courts. 

The  definitions  and  standards  for  flavoring  extracts  as  adopted 
by  that  Association  are  as  follows : 

1.  A  flavoring  extract  ^  is  a  solution  in  ethyl  alcohol  of  proper 
strength  of  the  sapid  and  odorous  principles  derived  from  an 
aromatic  plant,  or  parts  of  the  plant,  with  or  without  its  coloring 
matter,  and  conforms  in  name  to  the  plant  used  in  its  preparation. 

2.  Almond  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil 
of  bitter  almonds,  free  from  hydrocyanic  acid,  and  contains  not 
less  than  one  (i)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 

2a.  Oil  of  bitter  almonds,  commercial,  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained 
from  the  seed  of  the  bitter  almond  (Amygdalus  communis  L.), 
the  apricot  {Prunus  armeniaca  L.),  or  the  peach  (Amygdalus 
persica  L.). 

3.  Anise  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil 
of  anise  and  contains  not  less  than  three  (3)  per  cent  by  volume 
of  oil  of  anise. 

3a.   Oil  of  anise  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  anise  seed. 

4.  Celery  seed  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
celery  seed  or  the  oil  of  celery  seed,  or  both,  and  contains  not 
less  than  three  tenths  (0.3)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  celery  seed. 

4a.  Oil  of  celery  seed  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  celery 
seed. 

5.  Cassia  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of 
cassia  and  contains  not  less  than  two  (2)  per  cent  by  volume  of 
oil  of  cassia. 

5a.  Oil  of  cassia  is  the  lead-free  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the 
leaves  or  bark  of  Cinnamomum  cassia  Bl.,  and  contains  not  less 
than  seventy-five  (75)  per  cent  by  weight  of  cinnamic  aldehyde. 

6.  Cinnamon  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 

*  The  flavoring  extracts  herein  described  are  intended  solely  for  food  purposes 
and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  similar  preparations  described  in  the  Pharmacopoeia 
for  metlicinal  purposes. 


460  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

oil  of  cinnamon,  and  contains  not  less  than  two  (2)  per  cent  by 
volume  of  oil  of  cinnamon. 

6c.  Oil  of  cinnamon  is  the  lead-free  volatile  oil  obtained  from 
the  bark  of  the  Ceylon  cinnamon  (Cinnamomum  zeylanicum 
Breyne),  and  contains  not  less  than  sixty-five  (65)  per  cent  by 
weight  of  cinnamic  aldehyde  and  not  more  than  ten  (10)  per  cent 
by  weight  of  eugenol. 

7.  Clove  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of 
cloves,  and  contains  not  less  than  two  (2)  per  cent  by  volume 
of  oil  of  cloves. 

7a.  Oil  of  cloves  is  the  lead-free,  volatile  oil  obtained  from 
cloves. 

8.  Ginger  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  ginger 
and  contains  in  each  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters,  the 
alcohol-soluble  matters  from  not  less  than  twenty  (20)  grams  of 
ginger. 

9.  Lemon  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of 
lemon,  or  from  lemon  peel,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than 
five  (5)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  lemon. 

ga.  Oil  of  lemon  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained,  by  expression  or 
alcoholic  solution,  from  the  fresh  peel  of  the  lemon  (Citrus 
limonum  L.),  has  an  optical  rotation  (25°  C.)  of  not  less  than 
+  60°  in  a  100-millimeter  tube,  and  contains  not  less  than  four 
(4)  per  cent  by  weight  of  citral. 

10.  Terpeneless  extract  of  lemon  is  the  flavoring  extract  pre- 
pared by  shaking  oil  of  lemon  with  dilute  alcohol,  or  by  dissolving 
terpeneless  oil  of  lemon  in  dilute  alcohol,  and  contains  not  less 
than  two  tenths  (0.2)  per  cent  by  weight  of  citral  derived  from 
oil  of  lemon. 

loa.  Terpeneless  oil  of  lemon  is  oil  of  lemon  from  which  all  or 
nearly  all  of  the  terpenes  have  been  removed. 

1 1 .  Nutmeg  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil 
of  nutmeg,  and  contains  not  less  than  two  (2)  per  cent  by  volume 
of  oil  of  nutmeg. 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS  461 

1 1  a.    Oil  of  nutmeg  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  nutmegs. 

12.  Orange  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil 
of  orange,  or  from  orange  peel,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less 
than  five  (5)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  orange. 

1 20.  Oil  of  orange  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained,  by  expression  or 
alcoholic  solution,  from  the  fresh  peel  of  the  orange  (Citrus 
aurantium  L.)  and  has  an  optical  rotation  (25°  C.)  of  not  less 
than  +  95°  in  a  100-millimeter  tube. 

13.  Terpeneless  extract  of  orange  is  the  flavoring  extract  pre- 
pared by  shaking  oil  of  orange  with  dilute  alcohol,  or  by  dis- 
solving terpeneless  oil  of  orange  in  dilute  alcohol,  and  corresponds 
in  flavoring  strength  to  orange  extract. 

13a.  Terpeneless  oil  of  orange  is  oil  of  orange  from  which  all 
or  nearly  all  of  the  terpenes  have  been  removed. 

14.  Peppermint  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
oil  of  peppermint,  or  from  peppermint,  or  both,  and  contains 
not  less  than  three  (3)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  peppermint. 

14a.  Peppermint  is  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Mentha 
piperita  L. 

14A.  Oil  of  peppermint  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  pepper- 
mint and  contains  not  less  than  fifty  (50)  per  cent  by  weight  of 
menthol. 

15.  Rose  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  otto 
of  roses,  with  or  without  red  rose  petals,  and  contains  not  less 
than  four  tenths  (0.4)  per  cent  by  volume  of  otto  of  roses. 

150.  Otto  of  roses  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  petals 
of  Rosa  damascena  Mill.,  R.  centifolia  L.,  or  R.  moschata  Herrm. 

16.  Savory  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil 
of  savory,  or  from  savory,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than 
thirty-five  hundredths  (0.35)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  savory. 

1 6a.   Oil  of  savory  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  savory. 

17.  Spearmint  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
oil  of  spearmint,  or  from  spearmint,  or  both,  and  contains  not 
less  than  three  (3)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  spearmint. 


462  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

17a.  Spearmint  is  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Mentha 
spicata  L. 

1 76.   Oil  of  spearmint  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  spearmint. 

18.  Star  anise  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
oil  of  star  anise,  and  contains  not  less  than  three  (3)  per  cent  by 
volume  of  oil  of  star  anise. 

1 8a.  Oil  of  star  anise  is  the  volatile  oil  distilled  from  the  fruit 
of  the  star  anise  (Illicium  verum  Hook). 

19.  Sweet  basil  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
oil  of  sweet  basil,  or  from  sweet  basil,  or  both,  and  contains  not 
less  than  one  tenth  (o.i)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  sweet  basil. 

19a.  Sweet  basil,  basil,  is  the  leaves  and  tops  of  Ocymum 
basilicum  L. 

igb.   Oil  of  sweet  basil  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  basil, 

20.  Sweet  marjoram  extract,  marjoram  extract,  is  the  flavoring 
extract  prepared  from  the  oil  of  marjoram,  or  from  marjoram, 
or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  one  (i)  per  cent  by  volume 
of  oil  of  marjoram. 

20a.  Oil  of  marjoram  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  marjoram. 

21.  Thyme  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  oil  of 
thyme,  or  from  thyme,  or  both,  and  contains  not  less  than  two 
tenths  (0.2)  per  cent  by  volume  of  oil  of  thyme. 

2ia.   Oil  of  thyme  is  the  volatile  oil  obtained  from  thyme. 

22.  Tonka  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from  tonka 
bean,  with  or  without  sugar  or  glycerin,  and  contains  not  less 
than  one  tenth  (o.i)  per  cent  by  weight  of  coumarin  extracted 
from  the  tonka  bean,  together  with  a  corresponding  proportion 
of  the  other  soluble  matters  thereof. 

22a.  Tonka  bean  is  the  seed  of  Coumarouna  odorata  Aublet 
(Dipteryx  odorata  (Aubl.)  WiUd.). 

23.  yanilla  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
vanilla  bean,  with  or  without  sugar  or  glycerin,  and  contains 
in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  the  soluble  matters  from 
not  less  than  ten  (10)  grams  of  the  vanilla  bean. 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS 


463 


23a.  Vanilla  bean  is  the  dried,  cured  fruit  of  Vanilla  planifolia 
Andrews. 

24.  Wintergreen  extract  is  the  flavoring  extract  prepared  from 
oil  of  wintergreen,  and  contains  not  less  than  three  (3)  per  cent 
by  volume  of  oil  of  wintergreen. 

24a.  Oil  of  wintergreen  is  the  volatile  oU  distilled  from  the 
leaves  of  the  GauUheria  procumbens  L. 


Unclassified  Food  Materials 

Soups  containing  both  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and 
a  few  other  articles  grouped  as  unclassified  by  Atwater  and 
Bryant,  are  included  in  Table  53  which  is  taken  from  Atwater's 
and  Bryant's  tables  except  that  the  fuel  values  have  been  re- 
calculated, as  explained  in  previous  chapters. 

Table  53.    Composition  of  Unclassified  Food  Materials 


Dksckiption 


Soups,  homemade 

Beef  soup 

Bean  soup 

Clam  chowder  .... 
Meat  stew 

Soups,  canned 

Asparagus,  cream  of    .     . 

Bouillon 

Celery,  cream  of  .  .  . 
Chicken  gumbo  .  .  . 
Chicken  soup  .... 
Consoram6 


> 

(X 

,,^ 

°1i 

a 

Bt 

B^ 

»  ca 

h 
1^ 

s 
n 

< 

< 

5S 
^2 

1 

en 

(1.5 

r 

H 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cerU 

cent 

2 

— 

92.9 

4.4 

•4 

I.I 

1.2 

I 

— 

84.3 

3-2 

1.4 

9.4 

1-7 

2 

— 

88.7 

1.8 

.8 

,6.7 

2.0 

5 

~ 

84.S 

4.6 

4-3 

S-S 

1. 1 

I 



87.4 

2.S 

3-2 

S-5 

1.4 

3 

— 

96.6 

2.2 

.1 

.2 

•9 

I 

— 

88.6 

2.1 

2.8 

S-o 

i-S 

2 

— 

89.2 

3-8 

•9 

4-7 

1.4 

2 

— 

93-8 

3-6 

.1 

I -5 

I.O 

I 

— 

96.0 

2-5 

.4 

1. 1 

Cal. 

116 
286 
187 
359 


276 

47 

243 

191 

9" 


464 


FOOD  PRODUCTS 


Table  53.    Composition  of  Unclassified  Food  Materials  —  Continued 


DESCRIPnON 


Soups,  canned 
Com,  cream  of        ..... 

Julienne 

Mock  turtle        

Mulligatawny 

Oxtail : 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Pea  soup        

Pea,  cream  of  green     .     .     .     . 

Tomato  soup 

Turtle,  green 

Vegetable 

Miscellaneous 

Mincemeat,  commercial       .     • 

Mincemeat,  homemade    .     .     . 

Salad,  ham,  as  purchased     .     . 

Sandwich,  egg,  as  purchased 

Sandwich,  chicken,  as  pur- 
chased      

Cereal  coffee  infusion  (i  part 
boiled  in  20  parts  water)  * 

Yeast,  compressed,  as  purchased 


Per 
cent 


1.8 


Per 
cent 


86.8 

95-9 
89.8 

893 

88.8 
87.8 
86.9 
87.7 
90.0 
86.6 
95-7 


27.7 

54-4 
69.4 
41.4 

48.S 

98.2 
65.1 


Per 
cent 


2-5 

2.7 

S-2 

3-7 

4.0 
3-8 
3-6 
2.6 
1.8 
6.1 
2.9 


6.7 
4.8 

iS-4 
9.6 

12.3 

0.2 
11.7 


Per 
cent 


1.9 

•9 
.1 

1-3 
•S 
•7 
2.7 
I.I 
1.9 


1-4 

6.7 

7.6 

12.7 

S-4 

1.4 
21.0 


Per 
cent 


7.8 

•5 
2.8 

5-7 

4-3 
4.2 
7.6 
5-7 
S-6 
3-9 
•5 


60.2 

32.1 

5-6 

34-5 

32.1 


Per 

cent 


I.O 
•9 
3 

2 

6 

9 

2 

3 
5 
S 


4.0 

2.0 
2.0 
1.8 

1-7 

0.2 
1.8 


Col. 

265 

57 
182 

17s 

204 
166 
232 
261 
179 

259 
62 


1271 

943 
691 

1319 
1026 


29 
610 


*  The  average  of  five  analyses  of  cereal  coffee  grain  is:  Water  6.2,  protein  13.3, 
fat  3.4,  carbohydrates  72.6,  and  ash  4.5  per  cent.  Only  a  portion  of  the  nutrients, 
howevei',#enter  into  the  infusion.  The  average  in  the  table  represents  the  available 
nutrients  in  the  cereal  coffee  infusion.  Infusions  of  eenuine  coffee  and  of  tea  contain 
practically  no  nutrients. 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS  465 

Tea,  Coffee,  and  Cocoa 

These  three  materials  so  largely  used  in  making  beverages 
are  alike  in  having  a  certain  stimulating  property  due  to  alkaloid 
and  so  are  often  discussed  together. 

Tea  consists  of  the  prepared  leaves  and  leaf  buds  of  the  tea 
bush  belonging  to  different  species  of  Thea,  chiefly  TheaChinensis. 
The  choicest  teas  are  made  from  young  leaves  only,  the  Chinese 
teas  being  classified  according  to  the  position  of  the  leaf  on  the 
young  shoot.  Thus  the  very  highest  quality  of  tea  (not  to  be 
found  in  ordinary  trade)  is  the  pekoe  tip  or  flowery  pekoe,  made 
of  the  leaf  buds  at  the  very  end  of  the  twig ;  the  leaf  next  this 
bud,  that  is,  the  youngest  leaf  which  has  opened,  makes  the 
orange  pekoe;  the  next  older  leaf,  the  pekoe;  the  third  leaf  the 
souchong  first,  and  so  on  through  several  grades.  The  difference 
between  green  and  black  teas  is  due  to  the  mode  of  preparation. 
Green  tea  is  made  by  steaming  and  drying  the  leaves  while  fresh, 
while  black  tea  is  prepared  by  allowing  the  leaves  to  undergo 
an  oxidative  fermentation  which  darkens  their  color. 

More  than  half  the  tea  consumed  in  the  United  States  comes 
from  China,  most  of  the  remainder  from  Japan,  smaller  quanti- 
ties from  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  East  Indies,  and  about  one  part 
in  ten  thousand  of  what  we  use  is  grown  in  South  Carolina. 

A  special  law  governs  the  importation  of  tea  into  the  United 
States,  and  each  shipment  must  be  tested  and  found  to  comply 
with  the  standard  of  the  grade  claimed  for  it  before  it  is  allowed 
to  pass  through  the  custom  house. 

So  little  of  the  tea  enters  the  infusion  which  is  consumed  that 
it  seems  unnecessary  for  the  purposes  of  this  book  to  quote 
analyses  of  the  tea  leaf. 

The  stimulating  property  of  the  infusion  is  attributed  to 
the  alkaloid  first  called  theine  and  later  found  to  be  identical 
with  caffeine,  the  characteristic  alkaloid  of  coffee.  This  alkaloid 
is  chemically  a  tri-methyl-xanthine,  C8H10N4O2,   belonging  to 


466  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  same  group  of  substances  with  xanthine  and  hypoxanthine 
of  meat  extract. 

The  flavor  of  tea  is  also  influenced  by  the  tannin,  and  probably 
by  the  small  amount  of  volatile  oil  which  it  contains. 

Co  fee  is  the  seed  of  Coffea  arabica  or  Cofea  liberica.  It  was 
originally  grown  in  Africa  and  Arabia,  and  afterward  introduced 
into  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  tropical  America.  It  is 
estimated  that  at  present  Brazil  furnishes  over  half  the  world's 
supply  of  coffee  and  nearly  three  fourths  of  that  consumed  in 
the  United  States. 

The  constituents  of  chief  importance  in  coffee  are  the  alkaloid 
caffeine  which  has  just  been  described  as  occurring  in  tea,  the 
caffetannic  acid  (CisHigOs),  and  the  volatile  oil  known  as  caffeol 
(C8H10O2)  to  which  the  characteristic  flavor  and  aroma  of  coffee 
are  chiefly  attributed. 

Cocoa  in  addition  to  the  stimulating  property  due  to  the 
alkaloid  theobromine  (C7H8N4O2),  and  the  flavor  which  makes 
it  popular  both  as  a  beverage  and  in  confectionery,  has  a  con- 
siderable food  value.  A  brief  description  of  the  chief  cocoa 
products  was  given  in  the  last  chapter  (page  436). 

Other  Beverages 

Fruit  juices,  sometimes  classed  as  beverages,  are  about  equally 
entitled  to  recognition  as  foods  with  the  fruits  from  which  they 
are  obtained.  The  fruits  used  commercially  for  this  purpose 
are  in  most  cases  so  juicy  that  what  has  been  said  of  fruits  as 
food  in  Chapter  IX  appHes  almost  equally  to  the  fresh  fruit  or 
its  unfermented  juice.  Several  analyses  of  fruit  juices  and 
references  to  the  literature  regarding  them  will  be  found  in 
pages  335-365.  It  seems  therefore  unnecessary  to  discuss  them 
separately  here. 

Wines  have  received  much  attention  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  their  place  in  the  diet  and  in  connection  with  pure  food 
legislation.    A  discussion  of  the  former  topic  would  lead  much 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS  467 

beyond  the  scope  of  this  work ;  regarding  the  latter  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  give  the  definitions  and  standards  of  the  Association 
of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  which  are  as  follows : 

1 .  Wine  is  the  product  made  by  the  normal  alcoholic  fermentation  of  the 
juice  of  sound,  ripe  grapes,  and  the  usual  cellar  treatment,'  and  contains  not 
less  than  seven  (7)  nor  more  than  sixteen  (16)  per  cent  of  alcohol,  by  volume, 
and,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C),  not  more  than  one 
tenth  (o.i)  gram  of  sodium  chlorid  nor  more  than  two  tenths  (0.2)  gram  of 
potassium  sulphate;  and  for  red  wine  not  more  than  fourteen  hundredths 
(0.14)  gram,  and  for  white  wine  not  more  than  twelve  hundredths  (0.12) 
gram  of  volatile  acids  produced  by  fermentation  and  calculated  as  acetic 
acid.  Red  wine  is  wine  containing  the  red  coloring  matter  .of  the  skins  of 
grapes.  White  wine  is  wine  made  from  white  grapes  or  the  expressed  fresh 
juice  of  other  grapes. 

2.  Dry  wine  is  wine  in  which  the  fermentation  of  the  sugars  is  practically 
complete  and  which  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C.) 
less  than  one  (i)  gram  of  sugars  and  for  dry  red  wine  not  less  than  sixteen 
hundredths  (0.16)  gram  of  grape  ash  and  not  less  than  one  and  six  tenths 
(1.6)  grams  of  sugar-free  grape  solids,  and  for  dry  white  wine  not  less  than 
thirteen  hundredths  (0.13)  gram  of  grape  ash  and  not  less  than  one  and  four 
tenths  (1.4)  grams  of  sugar-free  grape  solids. 

3.  Fortified  dry  wine  is  dry  wine  to  which  brandy  has  been  added  but 
which  conforms  in  all  other  particulars  to  the  standard  of  dry  wine. 

4.  Sweet  wine  is  wine  in  which  the  alcoholic  fermentation  has  been  ar- 
rested, and  which  contains,  in  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  centimeters  (20°  C.) 
not  less  than  one  (i)  gram  of  sugars,  and  for  sweet  red  wine  not  less  than 
sixteen  hundredths  (0.16)  gram  of  grape  ash,  and  for  sweet  white  wine  not 
less  than  thirteen  hundredths  (0.13)  gram  of  grape  ash. 

5.  Fortified  sweet  wine  is  sweet  wine  to  which  wine  spirits  have  been 
added.  By  act  of  Congress,  "  sweet  wine  "  used  for  making  fortified  sweet 
wine  and  "  wine  spirits  "  used  for  such  fortification  are  defined  as  follows 
(sec.  43,  Act  of  October  i,  1890,  26  Stat.,  567,  as  amended  by  section  68,  Act 
of  August  27,  1894,  28  Stat.,  509,  and  further  amended  by  Act  of  Congress 
approved  June  7,  1906) :  "  That  the  wine  spirits  mentioned  in  section  42  of 
this  act  is  the  product  resulting  from  the  distillation  of  fermented  grape 
juice  to  which  water  may  have  been  added  prior  to,  during,  or  after  fermenta- 
tion, for  the  sole  purpose  of  facilitating  the  fermentation  and  economical 
distillation  thereof,  and  shall  be  held  to  include  the  products  from  grapes  or 

1  The  subject  of  sulphurous  acid  in  wine  was  reserved  for  future  consideration. 


468  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

their  residues,  commonly  known  as  grape  brandy ;  and  the  pure  sweet  wine, 
which  may  be  fortified  free  of  tax,  as  provided  in  said  section,  is  fermented 
grape  juice  only,  and  shall  contain  no  other  substance  whatever  introduced 
before,  at  the  time  of,  or  after  fermentation,  except  as  herein  expressly 
provided ;  and  such  sweet  wine  shall  contain  not  less  than  four  per  centum  of 
saccharine  matter,  which  saccharine  strength  may  be  determined  by  testing 
with  Balling's  saccharometer  or  must  scale,  such  sweet  wine,  after  the 
evaporation  of  the  spirits  contained  therein,  and  restoring  the  sample  tested 
to  original  volume  by  addition  of  water :  Provided,  That  the  addition  of  pure 
boiled  or  condensed  grape  must  or  pure  crystallized  cane  or  beet  sugar  or 
pure  anhydrous  sugar  to  the  pure  grape  juice  aforesaid,  or  the  fermented 
product  of  such  grape  juice  prior  to  the  fortification  provided  by  this  Act 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  perfecting  sweet  wine  according  to  commercial  stand- 
ard, or  the  addition  of  water  in  such  quantities  only  as  may  be  necessary  in 
the  mechanical  operation  of  grape  conveyers,  crushers,  and  pipes  leading  to 
fermenting  tanks,  shall  not  be  excluded  by  the  definition  of  pure  sweet  wine 
aforesaid :  Provided,  however.  That  the  cane  or  beet  sugar,  or  pure  anhydrous 
sugar,  or  water,  so  used  shall  not  in  either  case  be  in  excess  of  ten  (lo)  per 
centum  of  the  weight  of  the  wine  to  be  fortified  under  this  Act :  A  nd  pro- 
vided further ,  That  the  addition  of  water  herein  authorized  shall  be  under  such 
regulations  and  limitations  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  may  from  time  to  time  pre- 
scribe ;  but  in  no  case  shall  such  wines  to  which  water  has  been  added  be 
eligible  for  fortification  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act  where  the  same,  after 
fermentation  and  before  fortification,  have  an  alcoholic  strength  of  less  than 
five  per  centum  of  their  volume." 

6.  Sparkling  wine  is  wine  in  which  the  after  part  of  the  fermentation  is 
completed  in  the  bottle,  the  sediment  being  disgorged  and  its  place  supplied 
by  wine  or  sugar  liquor,  and  which  contains,  in  one  hundred  (loo)  cubic 
centimeters  (20°  C),  not  less  than  twelve  hundredths  (0.12)  gram  of  grape 
ash. 

7.  Modified  wine,  ameliorated  wine,  corrected  wine,  is  the  product  made  by 
the  alcoholic  fermentation,  with  the  usual  cellar  treatment,  of  a  mixture  of  the 
juice  of  sound,  ripe  grapes  with  sugar  (sucrose),  or  a  sirup  containing  not  less 
than  sixty-five  (65)  per  cent  of  sugar  (sucrose),  and  in  quantity  not  more  than 
enough  to  raise  the  alcoholic  strength  after  fermentation,  to  eleven  (11)  per 
cent  by  volume. 

8.  Raisin  wine  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  an 
infusion  of  dried  or  evaporated  grapes,  or  of  a  mixture  of  such  infusion  or  of 
raisins  with  graf>e  juice. 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS  469 

Brandy  is  spirit  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  wine.  It 
usually  contains  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  alcohol. 

Gin  is  a  distilled  spirit  flavored  with  volatile  oil  of  juniper  and 
sometimes  other  aromatic  substances.  It  usually  contains 
30  to  45  per  cent  of  alcohol. 

Rum  is  made  by  distillation  of  the  product  obtained  by  fer- 
mentation of  cane  sugar  molasses  as  described  in  connection 
with  the  sugar  industry  (page  428).  It  contains  about  50  per 
cent  of  alcohol. 

Cordials  are  made  by  steeping  fruits  or  aromatic  herbs  in 
brandy  or  neutral  spirit  and  distilling  the  product.  Absinthe 
is  a  cordial  made  by  distilling  an  infusion  of  wormwood  and 
therefore  contains  oil  of  wormwood  on  account  of  which  it  has 
been  forbidden  importation  into  the  United  States  as  adulterated 
under. the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  inasmuch  as  it  contains  an 
"  added  poisonous  or  deleterious  substance." 

Malt  liquor  has  been  defined  as  a  beverage  made  by  the 
alcoholic  fermentation  of  an  infusion  of  barley  malt  and  hops, 
with  or  without  unmalted  grains.  Whether  the  term  beer  should 
be  used  in  a  similar  broad  sense  or  be  more  closely  defined  has 
been  much  discussed  but  not  officially  determined.  Beer  ordi- 
narily contains  3.5  to  4  per  cent  of  alcohol. 

Low  alcohol  beers  are  being  manufactured  to  an  increasing 
extent  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  temperance  drink  having  a 
beer  flavor.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  the  sale  of 
ordinary  alcoholic  beverages  is  prohibited  or  severely  restricted 
while  those  of  alcohol  content  below  a  specified  limit  (often 
2  per  cent)  are  not  subject  to  the  prohibition  or  restriction.  In 
some  countries  of  Europe  ordinary  beer  is  taxed  while  beer  of 
alcohol  content  less  than  2.25  per  cent  is  tax-free. 

Whisky  is  distilled  spirit  made  from  grain,  colored  and 
flavored  by  storage  in  charred  barrels  or  by  addition  of  caramel 
and  suitable  flavor.  It  usually  contains  from  40  to  50  per  cent 
of  alcohol. 


470  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Vinegar 

The  term  vinegar,  originally  implying  a  product  made  from 
wine,  has  now  come  to  be  used  much  more  broadly.  The  kinds 
of  vinegar  recognized  officially  in  the  United  States  are  shown 
by  the  following  definitions  and  explanation  taken  from  Food 
Inspection  Decision  140  issued  February  27,  191 2  : 

Vinegar,  cider  vinegar,  apple  vinegar,  is  the  product  made  from 
the  alcoholic  and  subsequent  acetous  fermentations  of  the  ex- 
pressed juice  of  apples. 

Wine  vinegar,  grape  vinegar,  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic 
and  subsequent  acetous  fermentations  of  the  juice  of  grapes. 

Malt  vinegar  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subse- 
quent acetous  fermentations,  without  distillation,  of  an  infusion 
of  barley  malt  or  cereals  whose  starch  has  been  converted  by 
malt. 

Sugar  vinegar  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  subse- 
quent acetous  fermentations  of  solutions  of  sugar,  sirup,  molasses, 
or  refiner's  sirup. 

Glucose  vinegar  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  and  sub- 
sequent acetous  fermentations  of  solutions  of  starch  sugar  or 
glucose. 

Spirit  vinegar,  distilled  vinegar,  grain  vinegar,  is  the  product 
made  by  the  acetous  fermentation  of  dilute  distilled  alcohol. 

Several  questions  regarding  these  definitions  have  been  raised 
and  after  investigation  the  board  has  reached  the  following 
conclusions : 

Meaning  of  the  term  "  vinegar."  While  the  term  "  vinegar  " 
in  its  etymological  significance  suggests  only  sour  wine,  it  has 
come  to  have  a  broader  significance  in  English-speaking  countries. 
In  the  United  States  it  has  lost  entirely  its  original  meaning  and 
when  used  without  a  qualifying  word  designates  only  the  product 
secured  by  the  alcoholic  and  subsequent  acetous  fermentation 
of  apple  juice. 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS  47 1 

"  Second  pressings.^'  It  is  held  that  the  number  of  pressings 
used  in  preparing  the  juice  is  immaterial  so  long  as  the  pomace  is 
fresh  and  not  decomposed.  The  practice  of  allowing  the  pomace 
from  the  presses  to  stand  in  piles  or  in  vats  for  a  number  of  days, 
during  which  time  it  becomes  heated  and  decomposed,  and  then 
pressing,  securing  what  is  ordinarily  called  "  second  pressing," 
in  the  opinion  of  the  board  produces  a  product  which  consists 
in  whole  or  in  part  of  a  filthy  and  decomposed  material  and  is 
therefore  adulterated. 

Vinegar  from  dried-apple  products.  The  product  made  from 
dried-apple  skins,  cores,  and  chops,  by  the  process  of  soaking, 
with  subsequent  alcoholic  and  acetous  fermentations  of  the 
solution  thus  obtained,  is  not  entitled  to  be  called  vinegar  with- 
out further  designation,  but  must  be  plainly  marked  to  show 
the  material  from  which  it  is  produced.  The  dried  stock  from 
which  this  product  is  prepared  must  be  clean  and  made  from 
sound  material. 

Addition  of  water.  When  natural  vinegars  made  from  cider, 
wine,  or  the  juice  of  other  fruits  are  diluted  with  water,  the  label 
must  plainly  indicate  this  fact ;    as,  for  example,  "  diluted  to 

per  cent  acid  strength."     When  water  is  added  to  pomace 

in  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  fact  that  the  product  is  diluted 
must  be  plainly  shown  on  the  label  in  a  similar  manner.  Dilu- 
tion of  vinegar  naturally  reduces,  not  only  the  acid  strength,  but 
the  amount  of  other  ingredients  in  proportion  to  the  dilution, 
so  that  reduced  vinegars  will  not  comply  with  the  analytical 
constants  for  undiluted  products;  but  the  relations  existing 
between  these  various  ingredients  will  remain  the  same.  Diluted 
vinegars  must  have  an  acid  strength  of  at  least  4  grams  acetic 
acid  per  100  cubic  centimeters. 

Mixtures  of  vinegars.  As  different  kinds  of  vinegar  differ  in 
source,  flavor,  and  chemical  composition,  mixtures  thereof  are 
compounds  ^\^thin  the  meaning  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  and 
if  they  contain  no  added  poisonous  or  other  added  deleterious 


472  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ingredients,  will  not  be  held  to  be  misbranded  if  plainly  labeled 
with  the  word  "  compound,"  together  with  the  names  and 
proportions  of  the  various  ingredients. 

Addition  of  boiled  cider  and  coloring  matter.  The  Food  and 
Drugs  Act  provides  that  a  product  shall  be  deemed  to  be  adul- 
terated if  it  be  mixed,  colored,  powdered,  coated,  or  stained 
in  a  manner  whereby  damage  or  inferiority  is  concealed;  and, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  board,  the  addition  of  coloring  matters, 
boiled  cider,  etc.,  to. vinegar,  wine  vinegar,  and  the  other  types 
of  vinegar,  or  mixtures  thereof,  is  for  the  purpose  of  concealing 
damage  or  inferiority  or  producing  an  imitation  product.  In  the 
first  instance,  the  use  of  such  products  is  an  adulteration  and 
therefore  prohibited.  Products  artifically  colored  or  flavored 
with  harmless  ingredients  in  imitation  of  some  particular  kind 
of  vinegar  will  not  be  held  to  be  misbranded  if  plainly  labeled 
"  Imitation  vinegar "  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
the  law. 

Mixture  of  distilled  and  sugar  vinegars.  The  product  prepared 
by  submitting  to  acetous  fermentation  a  mixture  of  dilute 
alcohol  (obtained,  for  example,  from  molasses  by  -alcoholic 
fermentation  and  subsequent  distillation)  and  dilute  molasses, 
which  has  undergone  alcoholic  fermentation,  is  not  "  molasses 
vinegar  "  but  a  compound  of  distilled  vinegar  and  molasses 
vinegar;  such  mixtures,  however,  must  contain  a  substantial 
amount  of  molasses  vinegar  and  not  a  small  amount  for  the 
purpose  of  coloring  the  distilled  vinegar.  The  molasses  used 
must  be  fit  for  food  purposes  and  free  from  any  added  deleterious 
substances. 

Acetic  acid  diluted.  The  product  made  by  diluting  acetic 
acid  is  not  vinegar  and  when  intended  for  food  purposes  must 
be  free  ^om  harmful  impurities  and  sold  under  its  own  name. 

Product  obtained  by  distilling  wood.  The  impure  product  made 
by  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  known  as  "  pyroligneous 
acid,"  is  not  vinegar  nor  suitable  for  food  purposes. 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS  473 

Acid  strength.  All  of  the  products  described  above  should 
contain  not  less  than  four  (4)  grams  of  acetic  acid  per  one  hun- 
dred (100)  cubic  centimeters. 

In  addition  to  the  requirement  of  4  grams  of  acetic  acid  to 
100  cc.  in  each  case  the  full  standards  prescribe  in  the  cases 
of  several  vinegars  certain  limits  of  solids,  ash,  alkaUnity  of 
ash,  etc.,  designed  to  facilitate  the  identification  of  the  vinegar 
as  to  its  source  and  the  judgment  as  to  whether  it  is  wholly 
genuine  and  true  to  name. 

REFERENCES 

I  • 

.A.LLEN.     Commercial  Organic  Analysis. 

Bailey.     Source,  Chemistry,  and  Use  of  Food  Products. 

Freeman  and  Chandler.    The  World's  Commercial  Products. 

Fmedenwald  and  Ruhrah.     Diet  in  Health  and  Disease. 

Gildemeister  and  Hoffmann  (translated  by  Kremers).   The  Volatile  Oils. 

Hartwich.     Die  Menschlichen  Genussmittel. 

Hutchinson.     Food  and  Dietetics. 

KoNiG.     Chemie  der  Menschlichen  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel. 

Parry.     Foods  and  Drugs. 

Rogers  and  Aubert.     Industrial  Chemistry. 

Thompson.     Practical  Dietetics. 

Whymper.     Cocoa  and  Chocolate. 

WiNTQN.    Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods. 

n 

spices  atid  Flavoring  Extracts 

Richardson.     Spices   and    Condiments.     United    States    Department   of 

Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  13,  Part  2  (1887). 
WiNTON  et  al.     Analyses  of  Spices.   Connecticut  Experiment  Station  reports, 

1896  et  seq. 
Leach.     Composition  and  Adulteration  of  Ground  Mustard.     Journal  of 

the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  26,  pages  1203-12 10  (1904). 
Stillwell.     Analyses   of    Spanish    Paprika.     Journal    of    the    American 

Chemical  Society,  Vol.  28,  pages  1603-1605  (1906). 


474  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Sprinkelmeyer  and  Furstenberg.  On  Spices.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Unter- 
suchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  12,  pages  652-658 
(1906). 

DooLiTTLE  and  Ogden.  Composition  of  Known  Samples  of  Paprika.  Jour- 
nal of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  30,  pages  1481-1486  (1908). 

Chace.  The  Manufacture  of  Oil  of  Lemon  and  Citrate  of  Lime  in  Sicily. 
Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  i,  pages  18-27 
(1909). 

Lowenstein  and  Dunne.  Spanish  Paprika.  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  2,  pages  139-142  (1910). 

Hoffman  and  Evans.  Use  of  Spices  as  Preservatives.  Journal  of  Indus- 
trial and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  3,  pages  835-838  (191 1). 

RippETOE  and  Wise.  The  Preservative  Action  of  Essential  Oils.  Journal 
of  the  American  Pharmaceutical  Association,  Vol.  i,  pages  12 73-1 282 
(1912). 

SiNDALL.  Commercial  Cinnamon  and  Cassia.  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  4,  pages  590-591  (191 2). 

WiNTON  and  Berry.  Chemical  Composition  of  Authentic  Vanilla  Ex- 
tracts. United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
Bulletin  152,  page  146  (1912). 

Cochran  and  Perkins.  The  Comparative  Value  of  Some  Essential  Oils 
as  Preservatives  of  Cane  Sugar  Solutions  and  Starch  Sirups.  Journal 
of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  6,  pages  304-306,  306- 
307  (1914). 

McGiLL.     Mustard.     Canada  Inland  Revenue  Laboratory,  Bulletin   271 

(1913)- 
Micro.     Food  Condiments  and  Bouillon  Cubes.     Zeitschrift  fiir  Unter- 

suchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  26, pages  321-339  (1913). 
Tolman  and  Mitchell.     Composition  of  Different  Varieties  of  Red  Peppers. 

Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  5,  pages  747-751 

(1913)- 
WoLFRUM  and  Pinnovv.     Lemon  Extract.     Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung 
der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  26,  pages  409-422  (1913). 

Tea,  Co£ee,  and  Cocoa 

Spencer.  Tea,  Coffee,  and  Cocoa  Preparations.  United  States  Depart- 
ment/of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  13,  Part  7  (1892). 

Pennsylvania  Department  of  Agriculture  Reports  for  1897  and  1898. 

WiNTON  el  al.  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  Reports  for  1902  and 
1903. 


FOOD   ADJUNCTS  475 

Davies  and  McLellan.  Amount  of  Cocoa  Butter  contained  in  the  Cocoa 
Bean.  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  Vol.  23,  page  480 
(1904). 

DucHACEK.  Chemical  Composition  of  Coffee  and  Coffee  Substitutes. 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  8, 
pages  139-146  (1904). 

LiJHRiG.  Cocoa  Shells.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und 
Genussmittel,  Vol.  9,  pages  263-267  (1905). 

Shiver.  Tea  Industry  in  South  Carolina.  South  Carolina  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  96  (1905). 

Neumann.  Nutritive  Value  of  Cocoa.  Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,  Vol.  60,  pages 
175-190  (1907). 

BoHME.  Fat  Content  of  Cocoa  Products  and  its  Control  by  the  Manufac- 
turer.    Chemiker  Zeitung,  Vol.  32,  pages  97-99,  iia-112  (1908). 

Anderson.  The  Factors  that  Constitute  Values  in  Teas.  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  Vol.  28,  pages  285-288  (1909). 

Booth,  Cribb,  and  Richards.  Composition  and  Analysis  of  Chocolate. 
The  Analyst,  Vol.  34,  pages  134-148  (1909). 

Farnsteiner.  Detection  of  the  Processes  used  in  making  so-called  Soluble 
Cocoa.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel, 
Vol.  16,  pages  625-647  (1909). 

Nice.  Effects  of  Alcohol,  Nicotine,  and  Caffeine  on  White  Mice.  Journal 
of  Experimental  Zoology,  Vol.  14,  pages  123-151  (1911). 

Sollmann  and  Pilcher.  Influence  of  Caffeine  on  the  Mammalian  Circula- 
tion. Journal  of  Experimental  Pharmacology,  Vol.  3,  pages  19-48, 
48-51,  51-64,  64-66,  66-93  (i9")- 

Chandler  and  McEwan.  Tea :  Its  Cultivation,  Manufacture  and  Com- 
merce.    Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  Vol.  11,  pages  252-319  (1912). 

Eder.  Action  of  Coffee  on  the  Activity  of  the  Stomachs  of  Ruminants. 
Inaugural  Dissertation,  Giessen,  191 2. 

Hallingworth.  Influence  of  Caffeine  on  Mental  and  Motor  Efficiency. 
New  York:  The  Science  Press,  191 2. 

Salant.  The  Toxicity  of  Caffeine.  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  148  (191 2). 

Taylor.  Effects  of  Coffee  Drinking  upon  Children.  Psychological  Clinic, 
Vol.  6,  pages  56-58  (191 2). 

Bainbridge  and  Davies.  The  Essential  Oil  of  Cocoa.  Journal  of  the 
Chemical  Society  (London),  Vol.  loi,  pages  2209-2221  (1912). 

Read.  Detection  of  Artificial  Color  in  Tea.  Original  Communications 
8th  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  18,  pages  301- 
303  (1912). 


476  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

Salant  and  Rieger.  Elimination  and  Toxicity  of  Caffeine  in  Nephrecto- 
mized  Rabbits.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Chemistry,  Bulletin  i66  (1913). 

Sawamura.  Manufacture  of  Tea.  Original  Communications  8th  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  18,  pages  313-322  (191 2). 

Importation  and  Inspection  of  Tea  under  Act  of  March  2,  1897.  United 
States  Treasury  Department,  T.  D.  3321 1  (191 3). 

BuRMANN.  Chemical  and  Physiological  Investigation  of  the  Noxious  Prin- 
ciples of  Roasted  Coffee.  Bulletin  g6n6rale  Th6rapeutique,  Vol.  166, 
pages  379-400  (1914)- 

Daepmann.  Malt  Coffee.  Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs- 
und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  27,  pages  453-466  (i 914). 

Salant  and  Rieger.  Influence  of  Caffeine  on  the  Elimination  of  Creatine 
and  Creatinine.  American  Journal  of  Physiology,  Vol.  ^^,  pages  186- 
203  (1914). 

ScHULTE.  The  Methods  of  Tea,  Cocoa,  Coffee  and  Tobacco  Fermentations. 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  27, 
pages  209-225  (1914). 

Other  Beverages 

Allen.     The  Chemistry  of  Whiskey  and  Allied  Products.     Journal  of  the 

Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  Vol.  10,  pages  305-314  (1891). 
Parsons.  The  Identification  and  Composition  of  Malt  Liquors.    Journal  of 

the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  24,  pages  1170-1178  (1902). 
Browne.     Effects  of  Fermentation  upon  the  Composition  of  Cider  and 

Vinegar.     Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  25,  pages 

16-33  (1903)- 
Crapton  and  Tolman.     Changes  taking  Place  in  Whiskey  Stored  in  Wood. 

Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  30,  pages  98-136  (1908). 
Mezger.     Alcohol-free     Beverages.     Zeitschrift     fiir     Untersuchung     der 

Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  15,  pages  14-19  (1908). 
Barnard.    Temperance  Beers.     Indiana  State  Board  of  Health,  Bulletin 

12,  pages  95-96  (1909). 
Adams.    The  Distillation  of  Whiskey.     Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineer- 
ing Chemistry,  Vol.  2,  pages  34-42  (1910). 
Micko.     Rum,  Brandy,  Arrak,  Cognac.     Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der 

Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  19,  pages  305-322  (1910). 
Baker  and  Day.     Chemical  Behavior  and  Preservative  Action  of  Sulphites 

in  Beer.     Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Brewing,  Vol.  17,  pages  465-477 

(1911). 
BiOLETTi.    The    Principles     of     Wine-Making.     California    Agricultural 

Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  213  (1911). 


FOOD  ADJUNCTS  477 

Chapman.     The  Industry  of  Brewing.     Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 

Industry,  Vol.  30,  pages  463-469  (191 1). 
LiNTNER.     The  Flavoring  and  Aromatic  Constituents  of  Beer.     Zeitschrift 

fiir  das  gesammte  Brauwesen,  Vol.  34,  pages  586-589,  601-603  (191 1). 
Young  and  Sherwood.     Effect  of  the  Environment  of  Carbonated  Bever- 
ages on  Bacteria.     Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 

Vol.  3,  page  495  (191 1). 
GiBBS  and  Agcoili.     Philippine  Fermented  Beverages.     Philippine  Journal 

of  Science,  Vol.  7,  pages  97-119  (191 2). 
BoRAGiOLA    and    Boller.     So-called   Alcohol-free   Wines   of    Commerce. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  26, 

pages  369-408  (1913). 
KiCKTON  and  Murdfield.     The  Production,  Composition  and  Judging  of 

Port  Wine.     Ibid.,  Vol.  25,  pages  625-675  (19x3). 
Grunhut.    The  Standardization  and  Certification  of  Wines.    Ibid.,  Vol. 

26,  pages  498-535,  546-557  (1913)- 
KuLiscH.     Malt  Wines.     Ibid.,  Vol.  26,  pages  705-727  (1913). 
KiCKTON  and  Murdfield.    Wines  of  the  Type  of  Port  Wine.   Ibid.,  Vol.  27, 

pages  617-676  (1914). 

Vinegar 

Browne.     Effects  of  Fermentation  upon  the  Composition  of  Cider  and 

Vinegar.     Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  25,  pages 

16-33  (1903)- 
Leach  and  Lythgoe.     Cider  Vinegar  and  Suggested  Standards  of  Purity. 

Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Vol.  26,  pages  375-382  (1904). 
Van  Slyke.     A  Study  of  the  Chemistry  of  Homemade    Cider   Vinegar. 

New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  (Geneva,  N.  Y.),  Bulletin 

258  (1904). 
Woodman   and   Shingler.     Composition    of    American    Malt    Vinegar. 

Technology  Quarterly,  Vol.  19,  pages  404-47  (1907). 
Balcom.     Reports  on  Vinegar.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  132,  page  93,  and  Bulletin  137,  page  57 

(1910-1911). 
Bender.     Report  on  Vinegar.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  152,  pages  125-127  (1913). 
ToLMAN  and  Goodnow.     Composition  of  Cider  Vinegars  made  by  the 

Generator  Process.    Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 

Vol.  5,  pages  928  -933  (1913)- 
WiJSTENFELD  and  Foehr.    Tables  for  the  Determination  of  Yields  in 

Vinegar  Manufactories.     Deutsches    Essigindustrie,   Vol.    16,   pages 

361-362,  375-376  (1913)- 


APPENDIX   A 

RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  ENFORCEMENT 
OF  THE  FOOD  AND   DRUGS  ACT 

INTRODUCTION 

Under  date  of  October  17, 1906,  forty  rules  and  regulations  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  food  and  drugs  act,  June  30,  1906,  were  adopted  by  the  three 
Secretaries.  Since  that  date  eight  regulations,  Nos.  3,  5,  9,  15,  17,  19,  28, 
and  34,  have  been  amended,  the  first  named  by  F.  I.  D.  79,  "  Collection  of 
Samples,"  approved  by  Secretary  Wilson  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Secretary  Cortelyou  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and  Secretary  Straus  of  the 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  No.  5  by  F.  I.  D.  130,  "  Amendment 
to  Regulation  5,  Hearings,"  No.  9  by  F.  I.  D.  99,  "  Change  in  Form  of 
Guaranty  Legend,"  No.  15  to  accord  with  F.  I.  D.  104  on  Benzoate  of  Soda 
and  Nos.  135,  138,  and  142  on  Saccharin,  Nos.  17  and  19  by  F.  I.  D.  84, 
"  Label  "  and  "  Character  of  Name,"  No.  28  by  F.  I.  D.  112,  on  "  Labeling 
of  Derivatives,"  and  No.  34  by  F.  I.  D.  93,  "  Denaturing,"  all  over  the  signa- 
tures of  the  Secretaries  of  Agriculture,  the  Treasury,  and  Commerce  and 
Labor,  with  the  exception  of  F.  I.  D.  142,  from  which  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  dissented. 

Regulation  2,  Original  Unbroken  Package,  has  been  interpreted  by  F.  I.  D. 
86,  and  Regulation  9,  Form  of  Guaranty,  by  F.  I.  D.  83,  the  latter  an  opinion 
rendered  by  the  Attorney  General  on  the  issue  of  a  guaranty  based  upon  a 
guaranty. 

In  accordance  with  Regulation  15,  Wholesomeness  of  Colors  and  Preserva- 
tives, F.  I.  D.  76,  on  Dyes,  Chemicals,  and  Preservatives  in  Foods,  F.  I.  D. 
89,  Relating  to  the  Use  in  Foods  of  Benzoate  of  Soda  and  Sulphur  Dioxid. 
F.  I.  D.  92,  on  the  Use  of  Copper  Salts,  and  F.  I.  D.  102,  amending  F.  I.  D. 
92,  have  been  issued  over  the  signatures  of  the  three  Secretaries,  constituting 
decisions  on  these  points  pending  the  completion  of  investigations  and  the 
issuance  of  final  regulations  governing  the  use  of  such  substances.  F.  I.  D. 
104  constitutes  the  final  decision  on  the  use  of  benzoate  of  soda  in  foods,  and 
allows  such  use;  F.  I.  D.  135,  138,  and  142,  constitute  the  final  decision  on 
the  use  of  saccharin  in  food  and  prohibit  such  use  after  April  i,  191 2. 

479  — — — 


480  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

With  the  exception  of  these  amendments  and  amplifications  the  regula- 
tions as  originally  issued  remain  unchanged,  and  no  additional  rules  have 
been  adopted,  the  revision  issued  under  this  date  incorporating  the  changes 
enumerated,  together  with  the  amendments  to  section  8  of  the  food  and  drugs 
act.  D.  F.  Houston,  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Washington,  D.  C,  March  21,  1913. 

RULES  AND  REGXJLATIONS  AS  AMENDED 
GENERAL 
Regulation    i.     Short   Title   of   the   Act 
The  act,  "  For  preventing  the  manufacture,  sale,  or  trans- 
portation of  adulterated  or  misbranded  or  poisonous  or  deleterious 
foods,  drugs,  medicines,  and  liquors,  and  for  regulating  traffic 
therein,  and  for  other  purposes,"  approved  June  30,  1906,  shall 
be  known  and  referred  to  as  "  The  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  June 
30,  1906." 

Regulation   2.     Original   Unbroken   Package 
[See  also  F.  I.  D.  86  for  interpretation  of  this  regulation.] 

^  (Section   2.) 

y  The  term  "  original  unbroken  package  "  as  used  in  this  act 
is  the  original  package,  carton,  case,  can,  box,  barrel,  bottle, 
phial,  or  other  receptacle  put  up  by  the  manufacturer,  to  which 
the  label  is  attached,  or  which  may  be  suitable  for  the  attach- 
ment of  a  label,  making  one  complete  package  of  the  food  or 
drug  article.  The  original  package  contemplated  includes  both 
the  wholesale  and  the  retail  package. 

Regulation   3.     Collection   of   Samples 

[As  amended  by  F.  I.  D.  79,  October  8,  1907,  to  take  effect  November  i,  1907.] 

(Section   4.) 

Samples  of  unbroken  packages  shall  be  collected  only  by 

authorized  agents  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  or  by  the 

health,  food,  or  drug  officer  of  any  State,  Territory,  or  the  District 

of  Columbia,  when  commissioned  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 

for  this  purpose. 


APPENDIX  A  481 

Samples  may  be  purchased  in  the  open  market,  and,  if  in 
bulk,  the  marks,  brands,  or  tags  upon  the  package,  carton, 
container,  wrapper,  or  accompanying  printed  or  written  matter 
shall  be  noted.  The  collector  shall  also  note  the  names  of  the 
vendor  and  agent  through  whom  the  sale  was  actually  made, 
together  with  the  date  of  the  purchase.  The  collectors  shall 
purchase  representative  samples. 

A  sample  taken  from  bulk  goods  shall  be  divided  into 
three  parts,  and  each  shall  be  labeled  with  the  identifying 
marks. 

If  a  package  be  less  than  4  pounds,  or  in  volume  less  than 
2  quarts,  three  packages  shall  be  purchased,  when  practicable, 
and  the  marks  and  tags  upon  each  noted  as  above.  When  three 
samples  are  purchased,  one  sample  shall  be  delivered  to  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  or  to  such  chemist  or  examiner  as  may  be 
designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture;  the  second  and 
third  samples  shall  be  held  under  seal  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, who,  upon  request,  shall  deliver  one  of  such  samples 
to  the  party  from  whom  purchased  or  to  the  party  guaranteeing 
such  merchandise. 

When  it  is  impracticable  to  collect  three  samples,  or  to  divide 

.  the  sample  or  samples,  the  order  of  delivery  outlined  above  shall 

obtain,  and  in  case  there  is  a  second  sample  the  Secretary  of 

Agriculture  may,  at  his  discretion,  deliver  such  sample  to  parties 

interested. 

All  samples  shall  be  sealed  by  the  collector  with  a  seal  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose. 

Regulation  4.     Methods   of   Analysis 

(Section  4.) 
Unless  otherwise  directed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the 
methods  of  analysis  employed  shall  be  those  prescribed  by  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  and  the  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia. 


482  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Regulation   5.     Hearings 

[As  amended  by  F.  I.  U.  130,  January  18,  191 1.] 

(Section  4.) 

(a)  When  the  examination  or  analysis  shows  that  samples  are 
adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  act 
notice  of  that  fact  shall  be  given  in  every  case  to  the  party  or 
parties  against  whom  prosecution  lies  under  this  act  for  the 
shipment  or  manufacture  or  sale  of  the  particular  product  and 
such  other  interested  parties  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
may  direct,  and  a  date  shall  be  fixed  at  which  such  party  or 
parties  may  be  heard  before  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  or 
such  other  person  as  he  may  direct.  The  hearings  shall  be  had 
at  places  designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  most 
convenient  for  all  parties  concerned.  These  hearings  shall  be 
private  and  confined  to  questions  of  fact.  The  parties  interested 
therein  may  appear  in  person  or  by  attorney  and  may  submit 
oral  or  written  evidence  to  show  any  fault  or  error  in  the  findings 
of  the  analyst  or  examiner.  Interested  parties  may  present 
proper  interrogatories  to  analysts,  to  be  submitted  to  and  pro- 
pounded by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  or  the  officer  conducting 
the  hearing.  Such  privilege,  however,  shall  not  include  the. 
right  of  cross-examination.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may 
order  a  reexamination  of  the  sample  or  have  new  samples 
drawn  for  further  examination. 

(b)  If,  after  hearings  held,  it  appears  that  a  violation  of  the 
act  has  been  committed,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  give 
notice  to  the  proper  United  States  attorney. 

(c)  Any  health,  food,  or  drug  officer  or  agent  of  any  State, 
Territory,  or  the  District  of  Columbia  who  shall  obtain  satis- 
factory; evidence  of  any  violation  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act, 
June  30,  1906,  a§  provided  by  section  5  thereof,  shall  first  submit 
the  same  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  order  that  he  may 
give  notice  and  fix  dates  for  hearings  to  the  proper  parties. 


APPENDIX  A  483 

Regulation   6.     Publication 

(Section  4.) 

(a)  When  a  judgment  of  the  court  shall  have  been  rendered 
there  may  be  a  publication  of  the  findings  of  the  examiner  or 
analyst,  together  with  the  findings  of  the  court. 

(b)  This  publication  may  be  made  in  the  form  of  circulars, 
notices,  or  bulletins,  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  direct, 
not  less  than  thirty  days  after  judgment. 

(c)  If  an  appeal  be  taken  from  the  judgment  of  the  court  before 
such  publication,  notice  of  the  appeal  shall  accompany  the 
publication. 

Regulation    7.-    Standards   for   Drugs 
(Section    7.) 

(a)  A  drug  bearing  a  name  recognized  in  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary,  without  any  further 
statement  respecting  its  character,  shall  be  required  to  conform 
in  strength,  quality,  and  purity  to  the  standards  prescribed  or 
indicated  for  a  drug  of  the  same  name  recognized  in  the  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary,  official  at  the  time. 

(b)  A  drug  bearing  a  name  recognized  in  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary,  and  branded  to  show 
a  different  standard  of  strength,  quality,  or  purity,  shall  not  be 
regarded  as  adulterated  if  it  conforms  to  its  declared  standard. 

Regulation   8.     Formulas  —  Proprietary   Foods 
(Section   8,   last  paragraph.) 

(a)  Manufacturers  of  proprietary  foods  are  only  required  to 
state  upon  the  label  the  names  and  percentages  of  the  materials 
used,  in  so  far  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  find  this  to 
be  necessary  to  secure  freedom  from  adulteration  and  mis- 
branding. 

(b)  The  factories  in  which  proprietary  foods  are  made  shall 
be  open  at  all  reasonable  times  to  the  inspection  provided  for 
in  Regulation  i6. 


484  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

Regulation   9.     Form   of   Guaranty 

[As  amended  December  8,  1908,  by  F.  I.  D.  99,  to  take  effect  on  January  i,  1909;  see  ako 
F.  I.  D.  83  for  opinion  of  the  Attorney-General  on  the  issue  of  a  guaranty  based  upon  a 
former  guaranty.] 

(Section  9.) 

(a)  No  dealer  in  food  or  drug  products  will  be  liable  to 
prosecution  if  he  can  establish  that  the  goods  were  sold  under 
a  guaranty  by  the  wholesaler,  manufacturer,  jobber,  dealer,  or 
other  party  residing  in  the  United  States  from  whom  purchased. 

(b)  A  general  guaranty  may  be  filed  with  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  by  the  manufacturer  or  dealer  and  be  given  a  serial 
number,  which  number  shall  appear  on  each  and  every  package  ^ 
of  goods  sold  under  such  guaranty  with  the  words  "  Guaranteed 
by  [insert  name  of  guarantor]  under  the  food  and  drugs  act, 
June  30,  1906." 

(c)  The  following  form  of  guaranty  is  suggested : 

I  (we)  the  undersigned  do  hereby  guarantee  that  the  articles  of  foods  or 
drugs  manufactured,  packed,  distributed,  or  sold  by  me  (us)  [specifying  the 
same  as  fully  as  possible]  are  not  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  mean- 
ing of  the  food  and  drugs  act,  June  30,  1906. 

(Signed  in  ink.) 

[Name  and  place  of  business  of  wholesaler,  dealer,  manufacturer,  jobber,  or  other  party.] 

(d)  If  the  guaranty  be  not  filed  with  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture as  above,  it  should  identify  and  be  attached  to  the  bill 
of  sale,  invoice,  bill  of  lading,  or  other  schedule  giving  the  names 
and  quantities  of  the  articles  sold. 

ADULTERATION 

Regulation   10.     Confectionery 

(Section   7.) 

(a)  Mineral  substances  of  all  kinds  (except  as  provided  in 

Regulation    15)    are    specifically    forbidden    in    confectionery 

whether  they  be  poisonous  or  not. 

^This  provision  has  been  revoked  by  Food  Inspection,  Decisioa.153. 


APPENDIX   A  485 

(b)  Only  harmless  colors  or  flavors  shall  be  added  to  con- 
fectionery. 

(c)  The  term  "  narcotic  drugs  "  includes  all  the  drugs  men- 
tioned in  section  8,  food  and  drugs  act,  June  30,  1906,  relating 
to  foods,  their  derivatives  and  preparations,  and  all  other  drugs 
of  a  narcotic  nature. 

Regulation   11.     Substances   Mixed   and   Packed   with  Foods 

(Section    7,   under  "  Foods.")  yO-'^^-^  ^^  '^^'O 

No  substance  may  be  mixed  or  packed  with  a  food  product 
which  will  reduce  or  lower  its  quality  or  strength.  Not  ex- 
cluded under  this  provision  are  substances  properly  used  in  the 
preparation  of  food  products  for  clarification  or  refining,  and 
eliminated  in  the  further  process  of  manufacture. 

Regulation    12.     Coloring,    Powdering,    Coating   and   Staining 

(Section   7,    under   "  Foods.") 

(a)  Only  harmless  colors  may  be  used  in  food  products. 

(Z>)  The  reduction  of  a  substance  to  a  powder  to  conceal  in- 
feriority in  character  is  prohibited. 

(c)  The  term  "  powdered  "  means  the  application  of  any 
powdered  substance  to  the  exterior  portion  of  articles  of  food, 
or  the  reduction  of  a  substance  to  a  powder. 

id)  The  term  "  coated  "  means  the  application  of  any  sub- 
stance to  the  exterior  portion  of  a  food  product. 

(e)  The  term  "  stain  "  includes  any  change  produced  by  the 
addition  of  any  substance  to  the  exterior  portion  of  foods  which 
in  any  way  alters  their  natural  tint. 

Regulation    13.     Natural   Poisonous   or   Deleterious  Ingredients 
(Section   7,  paragraph   5,   under  "  Foods.") 

Any  food  product  which  contains  naturally  a  poisonous  or 
deleterious  ingredient  does  not  come  within  the  provisions  of 


486  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  food  and  drugs  act,  June  30,  1906,  except  when  the  presence 
of  such  ingredient  is  due  to  filth,  putrescence,  or  decomposition. 

Regulation    14.     External   Application   of   Preservatives 

(Section   7,   paragraph  5,,  under   "Foods,"  proviso.) 

(a)  Poisonous  or  deleterious  preservatives  shall  only  be  applied 
externally,  and  they  and  the  food  products  shall  be  of  a  char- 
acter which  shall  not  permit  the  permeation  of  any  of  the  pre- 
servative to  the  interior,  or  any  portion  of  the  interior,  of  the 
product. 

(b)  When  these  products  are  ready  for  consumption,  if  any 
portion  of  the  added  preservative  shall  have  penetrated  the  food 
product,  then  the  proviso  of  section  7,  paragraph  5,  under 
"  Foods"  shall  not  obtain,  and  such  food  products  shall  then  be 
subject  to  the  regulations  for  food  products  in  general. 

(c)  The  preservative  applied  must  be  of  such  a  character  that, 
until  removed,  the  food  products  are  inedible. 

Regulation    15.     Wholesomeness   of   Colors   and    Preservatives 

[As  amended  to  accord  with  F.  I.  D.  104.     See  also  F.  I.  D.  76,  89,  92,  101,  102,  13s,  and  138 
for  rulings  under  this  head.] 

(Section   7,  paragraph   5,   under  "  Foods.") 

(a)  Respecting  the  wholesomeness  of  colors,  preservatives, 
and  other  substances  which  are  added  to  foods,  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  shall  determine  from  chemical  or  other  examina- 
tion, under  the  authority  of  the  agricultural  appropriation  act. 
Public  382,  approved  June  30,  1906,  the  names  of  those  sub- 
stances which  are  permitted  or  inhibited  in  food  products; 
and  such  findings,  when  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasufy  and  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  shall 
become  a  part  of  these  regulations. 

(b)  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  determine  from  time 
to  time,  in  accordance  with  the  authority  conferred  by  the 


APPENDIX  A  487 

agricultural  appropriation  act,  Public  382,  approved  June  30, 
1906,  the  principles  which  shall  guide  the  use  of  colors,  pre- 
servatives, and  other  substances  added  to  foods;  and  when 
concurred  in  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce  and  Labor,  the  principles  so  established  shall  .- — 
become  a  part  of  these  regulations.  i  \^ 

(c)  It  having  been  determined  that  benzoate  of  soda  mixed 
with  food  is  not  deleterious  or  poisonous  and  is  not  injurious 
to  health,  no  objection  will  be  raised  under  the  food  and  drugs 
act  to  the  use  in  food  of  benzoate  of  soda,  provided  that  each 
container  or  package  of  such  food  is  plainly  labeled  to  show  the 
presence  and  amount  of  benzoate  of  soda.  Food  Inspection 
Decisions  76  and  89  are  amended  accordingly,  ' 

(d)  It  having  been  determined  that  saccharin  mixed  with  food 
is  an  added  poisonous  and  deleterious  ingredient  such  as  is 
contemplated  by"  the  act,  and  also  that  the  substitution  of 
saccharin  for  sugar  in  foods  reduces  and  lowers  their  quality, 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  will  regard  as  adulterated  under 
the  food  and  drugs  act  foods  containing  saccharin  which,  on  or 
after  April  i,  191 2,  are  manufactured  or  offered  for  sale  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  or  Territories  or  shipped  in  interstate  or 
foreign  commerce,  or  offered  for  importation  into  the  United 
States.  (F.  I.  D.  135,  138,  and  142,  dated  April  26  and  June  20, 
191 1,  and  March  i,  191 2,  respectively.) 


Regulation   16.     Character  of  the  Raw   Materials 

(Section  7,  paragraph  i,  under  "  Drugs;  "  paragraph  6,  under  "  Foods.") 

(a)  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  when  he  deems  it  necessary, 
shall  examine  the  raw  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  food 
and  drug  products,  and  determine  whether  any  filthy,  decom- 
posed, or  putrid  substance  is  used  in  their  preparation. 

(b)  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  make  such  inspections 
as  often  as  he  may  deem  necessary. 


I 


488  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

MISBRANDING 

Regulation    17.     Label 

[As  amended  by  F.  I.  D.  84,  January  31,  1908,  taking  effect  February  10,  1908. 1 
(Section   8.) 

(a)  The  term  "  label  "  applies  to  any  printed,  pictorial  or 
other  matter  upon  or  attached  to  any  package  of  a  food  or  drug 
product,  or  any  container  thereof  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
this  act. 

(b)  The  principal  label  shall  consist,  first,  of  all  information 
which  the  food  and  drugs  act,  June  30,  1906,  specifically  re- 
quires, to  wit,  the  name  of  the  place  of  manufacture  in  the  case 
of  food  compounds  or  mixtures  sold  under  a  distinctive  name ; 
statements  which  show  that  the  articles  are  compounds,  mix- 
tures, or  blends;  the  words  "compound,"  "mixture,"  or 
"  blend,"  and  words  designating  substances  or  their  derivatives 
and  proportions  required  to  be  named  in  the  case  of  foods  and 
drugs.  All  this  information  shall  appear  upon  the  principal 
label,  and  should  have  no  intervening  descriptive  or  explanatory 
reading  matter.  Second,  if  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  and 
place  of  manufacture  are  given,  they  should  also  appear  upon 
the  principal  label.  Third,  preferably  upon  the  principal 
label,  in  conjunction  with  the  name  of  the  substance,  such 
phrases  as  "  artificially  colored,"  "  colored  with _siilp hate  of 
copper,"  or  any  other  such  descriptive  phrases  necessary  to 
be  announced  should  be  conspicuously  displayed.  Fourth, 
elsewhere  upon  the  principal  label  other  matter  may  appear 
in  the  discretion  of  the  manufacturer.  If  the  contents  are 
stated  in  terms  of  weight  or  measure,  such  statement  should 
appear  upon  the  principal  label  and  must  be  couched  in  plain 
terms,  a^  required  by  Regulation  29. 

^  (c)  If  the  principal  label  is  in  a  foreign  language,  all  informa- 
tion required  by  law  and  such  other  information  as  indicated 
above  in  (b)  shall  appear  upon  it  in  English.     Besides  the  prin- 


APPENDIX  A  489 

cipal  label  in  the  language  of  the  country  of  production,  there 
maybe  also  one  or  more  other  labels,  if  desired,  in  other  languages, 
but  none  of  them  more  prominent  than  the  principal  label,  and 
these  other  labels  must  bear  the  information  required  by  law, 
but  not  necessarily  in  English.  The  size  of  the  type  used  to 
declare  the  information  required  by  the  act  shall  not  be  smaller 
than  8-point  (brevier)  capitals :  Provided,  That  in  case  the  size 
of  the  package  will  not  permit  the  use  of  8-point  type,  the  size 
of  the  type  may  be  reduced  proportionately. 

{d)  Descriptive  matter  upon  the  label  shall  be  free  from  any 
statement,  design,  or  device  regarding  the  article  or  the  ingredi- 
ents or  substances  contained  therein,  or  quality  thereof,  or  place 
of  origin,  which  is  false  or  misleading  in  any  particular.  The 
term  "  design  "  or  ''  device  "  applies  to  pictorial  matter  of  every 
description,  and  to  abbreviations,  characters,  or  signs  for  weights, 
measures,  or  names  of  substances. 

(g)  An  article  containing  more  than  one  food  product  or  active 
medicinal  agent  is  misbranded  if  named  after  a  single  con- 
stituent. 

In  the  case  of  drugs  the  nomenclature  employed  by  the  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia  and  the  National  Formulary  shall  obtain. 

(J)  The  use  of  any  false  or  misleading  statement,  design,  or 
device  appearing  on  any  part  of  the  label  shall  not  be  justified 
by  any  statement  given  as  the  opinion  of  an  expert  or  other 
person,  nor  by  any  descriptive  matter  explaining  the  use  of  the 
false  or  misleading  statement  given  as  the  opinion  of  an  expert 
or  other  person,  nor  by  any  descriptive  matter  explaining  the 
use  of  the  false  or  misleading  statement,  design,  or  device. 

Regulation    18.     Name   and    Address   of    Manufacturer 

(Section   8.) 

(a)  The  name  of  the  manufacturer  or  producer,  or  the  place 

where  manufactured,  except  in  case  of  mixtures  and  compounds 

having  a  distinctive  name,  need  not  be  given  upon  the  label, 


490  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

but  if  given,  must  be  the  true  name  and  the  true  place.  The 
words  "packed  for ,"  "distributed  by ,"  or  some  equiv- 
alent phrase,  shall  be  added  to  the  label  in  case  the  name  which 
appears  upon  the  label  is  not  that  of  the  actual  manufacturer  or 
producer,  or  the  name  of  the  place  not  the  actual  place  of 
manufacture  or  production. 

(b)  When  a  person,  firm,  or  corporation  actually  manufactures 
or  produces  an  article  of  food  or  drug  in  two  or  more  places,  the 
actual  place  of  manufacture  or  production  of  each  particular 
package  need  not  be  stated  on  the  label  except  when  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  the  mention  of  any  such 
place,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others,  misleads  the  public. 

Regulation   19.     Character   of   Name 
[As  amended  by  F.  I.  D.  84,  January  31,  igo8,  taking  efifect  February  10,  1908.] 

(Section   8.) 

(a)  A  simple  or  unmixed  food  or  drug  product  not  bearing 
a  distinctive  name  should  be  designated  by  its  common  name  in 
the  English  language ;  or  if  a  drug,  by  any  name  recognized  in 
the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary.  No 
further  description  of  the  components  or  qualities  is  required, 
except  as  to  content  of  alcohol,  morphine,  etc. 

(b)  The  use  of  a  geographical  name  shall  not  be  permitted 
in  connection  with  a  food  or  drug  product  not  manufactured 
or  produced  in  that  place,  when  such  name  indicates  that  the 
article  was  manufactured  or  produced  in  that  place. 

(c)  The  use  of  a  geographical  name  in  connection  with  a  food 
or  drug  product  will  not  be  deemed  a  misbranding  when  by 
reason  of  long  usage  it  has  come  to  represent  a  generic  term  and 
is  used  to  indicate  a  style,  type,  or  brand ;  but  in  all  such  cases 
the  St9,te  or  Territory  where  any  such  article  is  manufactured 
or  produced  shall  be  stated  upon  the  principal  label. 

(d)  A  foreign  name  which  is  recognized  as  distinctive  of  a 
product  of  a  foreign  country  shall  not  be  used  upon  an  article 


APPENDIX  A  491 

of  domestic  origin  except  as  an  indication  of  the  type  or  style 
of  quality  or  manufacture,  and  then  only  when  so  qualified  that 
it  cannot  be  offered  for  sale  under  the  name  of  a  foreign  article. 

Regulation   20.     Distinctive   Name 
(Section   8.) 

(a)  A"  distinctive  name  "  is  a  trade,  arbitrary,  or  fancy  name 
which  clearly  distinguishes  a  food  product,  mixture,  or  compound 
from  any  other  food  product,  mixture,  or  compound. 

(b)  A  distinctive  name  shall  not  be  one  representing  any 
single  constituent  of  a  mixture  or  compound. 

(c)  A  distinctive  name  shall  not  misrepresent  any  property  or 
quality  of  a  mixture  or  compound. 

(d)  A  distinctive  name  shall  give  no  false  indication  of  origin, 
character,  or  place  of  manufacture,  nor  lead  the  purchaser  to 
suppose  that  it  is  any  other  food  or  drug  product. 

Regulation   21.     Compounds,   Imitations,   or   Blends   Without   Distinctive 

Name 
(Section   8.) 

(a)  The  term  "  blend  "  applies  to  a  mixture  of  like  substances, 
not  excluding  harmless  coloring  or  flavoring  ingredients  used  for 
the  purpose  of  coloring  and  flavoring  only. 

(b)  If  any  age  is  stated,  it  shall  not  be  that  of  a  single  one  of 
its  constituents,  but  shall  be  the  average  of  all  constituents  in 
their  respective  proportions. 

(c)  Coloring  and  flavoring  cannot  be  used  for  increasing  the 
weight  or  bulk  of  a  blend. 

(d)  In  order  that  colors  or  flavors  may  not  increase  the  volume 
or  weight  of  a  blend,  they  are  not  to  be  used  in  quantities 
exceeding  i  pound  to  800  pounds  of  the  blend. 

(e)  A  color  or  flavor  cannot  be  employed  to  imitate  any  natural 
product  or  any  other  product  of  recognized  name  and  quality. 

(/)  The  term  "  imitation  "  applies  to  any  mixture  or  compound 


492  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

which  is  a  counterfeit  or  fraudulent  simulation  of  any  article 
of  food  or  drug. 

Regulation   22.     Articles   without   a   Label 

(Section  8,  paragraph  i,  under  "  Drugs;  "  paragraph  i,  under  "  Foods.") 

It  is  prohibited  to  sell  or  offer  for  sale  a  food  or  drug  product 
bearing  no  label  upon  the  package  or  no  descriptive  matter 
whatever  connected  with  it,  either  by  design,  device,  or  otherwise, 
if  said  product  be  an  imitation  of  or  offered  for  sale  under  the 
name  of  another  article. 

y\  V/  Regulation   23.     Proper   Branding  not   a   Complete   Guaranty 

//  Packages  which  are  correctly  branded  as  to  character  of 

contents,  place  of  manufacture,  name  of  manufacturer,  or  other- 
wise, may  be  adulterated  and  hence  not  entitled  to  enter  into 
interstate  commerce. 

Regulation   24.     Incompleteness   of  Branding 

A  compound  shall  be  deemed  misbranded  if  the  label  be  incom- 
plete as  to  the  names  of  the  required  ingredients.  A  simple 
product  does  not  require  any  further  statement  than  the  name 
or  distinctive  name  thereof,  except  as  provided  in  Regulations 
19  (a)  and  28. 

Regulation   25.     Substitution 

(Sections   7   and  8.) 

{a)  When  a  substance  of  a  recognized  quality  commonly  used 
in  the  preparation  of  a  food  or  drug  product  is  replaced  by  an- 
other substance  not  injurious  or  deleterious  to  health,  the  name 
of  the  substituted  substance  shall  appear  upon  the  label. 

{b)  When  any  substance  which  does  not  reduce,  lower,  or 
injuriously  affect  its  quality  or  strength,  is  added  to  a  food  or 
drug  product,  other  than  that  necessary  to  its  manufacture  or 
refining,  the  label  shall  bear  a  statement  to  that  effect. 


APPENDIX  A  493 

Regulation  26.  Waste  Materials 
(Section  8.) 
When  an  article  is  made  up  of  refuse  materials,  fragments,  or 
trimmings,  the  use  of  the  name  of  the  substance  from  which 
they  are  derived,  unless  accompanied  by  a  statement  to  that 
effect,  shall  be  deemed  a  misbranding.  Packages  of  such 
materials  may  be  labeled  "  pieces,"  "  stems,"  ''  trimmings," 
or  with  some  similar  appellation. 

Regulation   27.     Mixtures   or   Compounds   with   Distinctive   Names 
(Section   8.     First   proviso   under   "  Foods,"   paragraph    i.) 

(a)  The  terms  "  mixtures  "  and  "  compounds  "  are  inter- 
changeable and  indicate  the  results  of  putting  together  two  or 
more  food  products. 

(b)  These  mixtures  or  compounds  shall  not  be  imitations  of 
other  articles,  whether  simple,  mixt,  or  compound,  or  offered 
for  sale  under  the  name  of  other  articles.  They  shall  bear  a 
distinctive  name  and  the  name  of  the  place  where  the  mixture 
or  compound  has  been  manufactured  or  produced. 

(c)  If  the  name  of  the  place  be  one  which  is  found  in  different 
States,  Territories,  or  countries,  the  name  of  the  State,  Territory, 
or  country,  as  well  as  the  name  of  the  place,  must  be  stated. 

Regulation   28.     Substances   named   in   Drugs   or   Foods 

[As  amended  by  F.  I.  D.  112,  January  6,  1910,  taking  effect  April  i,  1910.] 

(Section   8.     Second   under   "  Drugs ;  "   second   under   "  Foods.") 

(a)  The  term  "  alcohol  "  is  defined  to  mean  common  or 
ethyl  alcohol.  No  other  kind  of  alcohol  is  permissible  in  the 
manufacture  of  drugs  except  as  specified  in  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia  or  National  Formulary. 

(b)  The  words  alcohol,  morphine,  opium,  etc.,  and  the  quanti- 
ties and  proportions  thereof,  shall  be  printed  in  letters  correspond- 
ing in  size  with  those  prescribed  in  Regulation  17,  paragraph  (c). 

(c)  A  drug,  or  food  product  except  in  respect  of  alcohol,  is 


I 


494  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

^piisbranded  in  case  it  fails  to  bear  a  statement  on  the  labfej  of 
the  quantity  or  proportion  of  any  alcohol,  morphine,  opium, 
heroin,  cocaine,  alpha  or  beta  eucaine,  chloroform,  cannabis 
indica,  chloral  hydrate,  or  acetanilide,  or  any  derivative  or' 
preparation  of  any  such  substances  contained  therein. 

(d)  A  statement  of  the  maximum  quantity  or  proportion  of  any 
such  substances  present  will  meet  the  requirements,  provided 
the  maximum  stated  does  not  vary  materially  from  the  average 
quantity  of  proportion. 

(e)  In  case  the  actual  quantity  or  proportion  is  stated  it  shall 
be  the  average  quantity  or  proportion  with  the  variations  noted 
in  Regulation  29. 

(/)  The  following  are  the  principal  derivatives  and  prepara- 
tions made  from  the  articles  which  are  required  to  be  named  upon 
the  label : 

Alcohol,  Ethyl:   (Cologne  spirits,  Grain  alcohol,  Rectified  spirits.  Spirits, 
and  Spirits  o^  wine.) 
Derivatives  — 

Aldehyde,  Ether,  Ethyl  acetate,  Ethyl  nitrite,  and  Paraldehyde. 
Preparations  containing  alcohol  — 

Bitters,  Brandies,  Cordials,  Elixirs,  Essences,  Fluid  extracts.  Spirits, 
Sirups,  Tinctures,  Tonics,  Whiskies,  and  Wines. 
Morphine,  ALKALom : 
Derivatives  — 
Apomorphine,  Dionine,  Peronine,  Morphine  acetate.  Hydrochloride, 
Sulphate,  and  other  salts  of  morphine. 
Preparations  containing  morphine  or  derivatives  of  morphine  — 

Bougies,  Catarrh  Snuff,  Chlorodyne,  Compound  powder  of  morphine, 
Crayons,  Elixirs,  Granules,  Pills,  Solutions,  Sirups,  Suppositories, 
Tablets,  Triturates,  and  Troches. 
Opium,  Gum  : 

Preparations  of  opium  — 

Extracts,  Denarcotized  opium,  Granulated  opium,  and  Powdered 
opium,  Bougies,  Brown  mixture,  Carminative  mixtures,  Crayons, 
Dover's  powder,  I'.lixirs,  Liniments,  Ointments,  Paregoric,  Pills, 
Plasters,  Sirups,  Suppositories,  Tablets,  Tinctures,  Troches,  Vine- 
gars, and  Wines. 


APPENDIX  A  49Jt 


V     be 


Jenvahves  —  \ 

Codeine,  Alkaloid,  Hydrochloride,  Phosphate,  Sulphate,  and  other 
salts  of  codeine. 
Preparations  containing  codeine  or  its  salts  — 
Elixirs,  Pills,  Sirups,  and  Tablets. 
Cocaine,  Alkaloid  : 
Derivatives  — 

Cocaine  hydrochloride,  Oleate,  and  other  salts. 
Preparations  containing  cocaine  or  salts  of  cocaine  — 

Coca  leaves.  Catarrh  powders,  Elixirs,  Extracts,  Infusion  of  coca. 
Ointments,  Paste  pencils.  Pills,  Solutions,  Sirups,  Tablets,  Tinctures, 
Troches,  and  Wines. 
Heroin  : 

Preparations  containing  heroin  — 
Sirups,  Elixirs,  Pills,  and  Tablets. 
Alpha  and  Beta  Eucaine  : 

Preparations  —  . 

Mixtures,  Ointments,  Powders,  and  Solutions. 
Chloroform  : 

Preparations  containing  chloroform  — 

Chloranodyne,  Elixirs,  Emulsions,  Liniments,  Mixtures,  Spirits,  and 
Sirups. 
Cannabis  Indica  : 

Preparations  of  cannabis  indica  — 

Com  remedies,  Extracts,  Mixtures,  Pills,  Powders,  Tablets,  and 
Tinctures. 
Chloral  Hydrate  {Chloral,  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia,  1890) : 
Derivatives  — 

Chloral  acetophenonoxim,  Chloral  alcoholate,  Chloralamide,  Chloral- 
imide,  Chloral  orthoform,  Chloralose,  Dormiol,  Hypnal,  and  Uraline. 
Preparations  containing  chloral  hydrate  or  its  derivatives  — 

Chloral  camphorate,  Elixirs,  Liniments,  Mixtures,  Ointments,  Sup- 
positories, Sirups,  and  Tablets. 
AcETANiLiDE  {A  ntifcbrine,  Phenylacetamide) : 
Derivatives  — 

Acetphenetidine,  Citrophen,  Diacetanilide,  Lactophenin,  Methoxyace- 
tanilide,  Methylacetanilide,  Para-lodoacetanilide,  and  Phenacetine. 
Preparations  containing  acetanilide  or  derivatives  — 

Analgesics,  Antineuralgics,  Antirheumatics,  Cachets,  Capsules,  Cold 
remedies,  Elixirs,  Granular  efifervescing  salts,  Headache  powders, 
Mixtures,  Pain  remedies,  Pills,  and  Tablets. 


496  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

(g)  In  declaring  the  quantity  or  proportion  of  any  of  the  speci- 
fied substances  the  names  by  which  they  are  designated  in  the 
act  shall  be  used,  and  in  declaring  the  quantity  or  proportion 
of  derivatives  of  any  of  the  specified  substances,  in  addition 
to  the  trade  name  of  the  derivative,  the  name  of  the  specified 
substance  shall  also  be  stated,  so  as  to  indicate  clearly  that  the 
product  is  a  derivative  of  the  particular  specified  substance. 

Regulation   29.     Statement   of   Weight   or    Measure 

(Section   8.     Third   under   "  Foods.") 

[The  section  of  the  law  under  which  this  regulation  was  made  has  been  amended  by  the  act 
of  March  3,  1913,  Public  —  No.  419,  H.  R.  22526.  New  regulations  will  be  published  as 
soon  as  they  have  been  adopted.] 

(a)  A  statement  of  the  weight  or  measure  of  the  food  contained 
in  a  package  is  not  required.  If  any  such  statement  is  printed, 
it  shall  be  a  plain  and  correct  statement  of  the  average  net  weight 
or  volume,  either  on  or  immediately  above  or  below  the  principal 
label,  and  of  the  size  of  letters  specified  in  Regulation  17. 

(b)  A  reasonable  variation  from  the  stated  weight  for  in- 
dividual packages  is  permissible,  provided  this  variation  is  as 
often  above  as  below  the  weight  or  volume  stated.  This  varia- 
tion shall  be  determined  by  the  inspector  from  the  changes  in 
the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  from  the  exposure  of  the  package 
to  evaporation  or  to  absorption  of  water,  and  the  reasonable 
variations  which  attend  the  filing  and  weighing  or  measuring 
of  a  package. 

Regulation   30.     Method   of   Stating    Quantity   or   Proportion 

(Section  8.) 

In  the  case  of  alcohol  the  expression  "  quantity  "or  "  pro- 
portion "  shall  mean  the  average  percentage  by  volume  in  the 
finished  product.  In  the  case  of  the  other  ingredients  required 
to  be  named  upon  the  label,  the  expression  "  quantity  "  or 
"  proportion  "  shall  mean  grains  or  minims  per  ounce  or  fluid 


I         I  APPENDIX  A  497 

punc^,  and  also,  if  desired,  the  metric  equivalents  therefor,  ^r 
milligrams  per  gram  or  per  cubic  centimeter,  or  grams  or  cunac 
centimeters  per  kilogram  or  per  liter;  provided  that  thes^ 
articles  shall  not  be  deemed  misbranded  if  the  maximum  of 
quantity  or  proportion  be  stated,  as  required  in  Regulation 
28  {d). 

EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS  OF  FOODS  AND  DRUGS 

Regulation  31.     Preparation  of  Food   Products  for   Export 

(Section    2.) 

(a)  Food  products  intended  for  export  may  contain  added 
substances  not  permitted  in  foods  intended  for  interstate  com- 
merce, when  the  addition  of  such  substances  does  not  conflict 
with  the  laws  of  the  countries  to  which  the  food  products  are 
to  be  exported  and  when  such  substances  are  added  in  accordance 
with  the  directions  of  the  foreign  purchaser  or  his  agent. 

(b)  The  exporter  is  not  required  to  furnish  evidence  that  goods 
have  been  prepared  or  packed  in  compliance  with  the  laws  of 
the  foreign  country  to  which  said  goods  are  intended  to  be  shipped, 
but  such  shipment  is  made  at  his  own  risk. 

(c)  Food  products  for  export  under  this  regulation  shall  be 
kept  separate  and  labeled  to  indicate  that  they  are  for  export. 

(d)  If  the  products  are  not  exported  they  shall  ilot  be  allowed 
to  enter  interstate  commerce. 

Regulation  32.  Imported  Food  and  Drug  Products 
(Section  11.) 
(a)  Meat  and  meat  food  products  imported  into  the  United 
States  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  official  inspec- 
tion of  a  character  to  satisfy  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  that 
they  are  not  dangerous  to  health,  and  each  package  of  such 
articles  shall  bear  a  label  which  shall  identify  it  as  covered  by 
the  certificate,  which  certificate  shall  accompany  or  be  attached 
to  the  invoice  on  which  entry  is  made. 

2K 


498  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

(b)  The  certificate  shall  set  forth  the  official  position  of  the 
inspector  and  the  character  of  the  inspection. 

(c)  Meat  and  meat  food  products  as  well  as  all  other  food  and 
drug  products  of  a  kind  forbidden  entry  into  or  forbidden  to  be 
sold  or  restricted  in  sale  in  the  country  in  which  made  or  from 
which  exported,  will  be  refused  admission. 

(d)  Meat  and  meat  food  products  which  have  been  inspected 
and  passed  through  the  customs  may,  if  identity  is  retained,  be 
transported  in  interstate  commerce. 

Regulation  33.     Declaration 
(Section   11.) 

(a)  All  invoices  of  food  or  drug  products  shipped  to  the  United 
States  shall  have  attached  to  them  a  declaration  of  the  shipper, 
made  before  a  United  States  consular  officer,  as  follows : 

I,  the  undersigned,  do  solemnly  and  truly  declare  that  I  am  the 

(Manufacturer,  agent,  or  shipper.) 

of  the  merchandise  herein  mentioned  and  described,  and  that  it  consists  of 

food  or  drug  products  which  contain  no  added  substances  injurious  to  health. 

These  products  were  grown  in and  manufactured  in by 

(Country.)  (Country.)    (Name 

during  the  year ,  and  are  exported  from and  consigned  to 

of  manufacturer.)  (City.) 

.      The  products  bear  no  false  labels    or  marks,  contain  no  added 

(City.)  some 

coloring  matter  or  preservative ,  and  are  not  of  a  character  to  cause 

(Name  of  added  color  or  preservative.) 

prohibition  or  restriction  in  the  country  where  made  or  from  which  exported. 

Dated  at this day  of ,  19 — . 

(Signed) : . 

(b)  In  the  case  of  importations  to  be  entered  at  New  York, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  and  New  Orleans, 
and  other  ports  where  food  and  drug  inspection  laboratories 
shall  be  established,  this  declaration  shall  be  attached  to  the 
invoice  on  which  entry  is  made.  In  other  cases  the  declaration 
shall  be  attached  to  the  copy  of  the  invoice  sent  to  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry. 


APPENDIX  A  499 

Regulation   34.     Denaturing 

(As  amended  by  F.  I.  D.  93,  May  12,  1908.] 

(Section    11.) 

Unless  otherwise  declared  on  the  invoice,  all  substances  or- 
dinarily used  as  food  products  will  be  treated  as  such.  Ship- 
ments of  substances  ordinarily  used  as  food  products  intended 
for  technical  purposes  should  be  accompanied  by  a  declaration 
stating  that  fact.  Such  products  should  be  denatured  before 
entry,  but  denaturing  may  be  allowed  under  customs  supervision 
with  the  consent  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  or  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  may  release  such  products  without  de- 
naturing, under  such  conditions  as  may  preclude  the  possibility 
of  their  use  as  food  products. 

Regulation   35.     Bond,   Imported   Foods,   and   Drugs 

(Section  11.) 

Unexamined  packages  of  food  and  drug  products  may  be 
delivered  to  the  consignee  prior  to  the  completion  of  the  examina- 
tion to  determine  whether  the  same  are  adulterated  or  mis- 
branded  upon  the  execution  of  a  penal  bond  by  the  consignee 
in  the  sum  of  the  invoice  value  of  such  goods  with  the  duty  added, 
for  the  return  of  the  goods  to  customs  custody. 

Regulation  36.     Notification  of  Violation  of  the   Law 

(Section    11.) 

If  the  sample  on  analysis  or  examination  be  found  not  to 
comply  with  the  law,  the  importer  shall  be  notified  of  the  nature 
of  the  violation,  the  time  and  place  at  which  final  action  will 
be  taken  upon  the  question  of  the  exclusion  of  the  shipment, 
and  that  he  may  be  present,  and  submit  evidence  (Form  No.  5), 
which  evidence,  with  a  sample  of  the  article,  shall  be  forwarded 
to  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  at  Washington,  accompanied  by 
the  appropriate  report  card. 


5CX)  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Regulation  37.     Appeal  to  the  Secretary  of  Agrictilture  and  Remuneration 

(Section  11.) 
All  applications  for  relief  from  decisions  arising  under  the 
execution  of  the  law  should  be  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  and  all  vouchers  or  accounts  for  remuneration  for 
samples  shall  be  filed  with  the  chief  of  the  inspection  laboratory, 
who  shall  forward  the  same,  with  his  recommendation,  to  the 
Department  of  Agricultiu-e  for  action. 

Regulation  38.     Shipment  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States 

(Section  11.) 
The  time  allowed  the  importer  for  representations  regarding 
the  shipment  may  be  extended  at  his  request  to  permit  him  to 
secure  such  evidence  as  he  desires,  provided  that  this  extension 
of  time  does  not  entail  any  expense  to  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. If  at  the  expiration  of  this  time,  in  view  of  the  data 
secured  in  inspecting  the  sample  and  such  evidence  as  may 
have  been  submitted  by  the  manufacturers  or  importers,  it 
appears  that  the  shipment  cannot  be  legally  imported  into  the 
United  States,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  request  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  refuse  to  deliver  the  shipment  in 
question  to  the  consignee,  and  to  require  its  reshipment  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 

Regulation  39.  Application  of  Regulations 
These  regulations  shall  not  apply  to  domestic  meat  and  meat 
food  products  which  are  prepared,  transported,  or  sold  in  inter- 
state or  foreign  commerce  under  the  meat-inspection  law  and 
the  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  made  thereunder. 
(This  regulation  has  since  been  revoked.) 

Regulation   40.     Alteration   and   Amendment   of   Regulations 
These  regulations  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  any  time, 
without  previous  notice,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce  and  Labor. 


APPENDIX  B 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISIONS  ^ 

FOOD   INSPECTION  DECISION  44 

SCOPE  AND   PURPOSE   OF   FOOD   INSPECTION  DECISIONS 

From  the  tenor  of  many  inquiries  received  in  this  Department 
it  appears  that  many  persons  suppose  that  the  answers  to  in- 
quiries addressed  to  this  Department,  either  in  letters  or  in 
published  decisions,  have  the  force  and  effect  of  the  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  enforcement  of  the  food  and  drugs  act  of 
June  30,  1906.  The  following  are  illustrations  of  the  inquiries 
received  by  this  Department : 

Must  we  stamp  all  goods  as  conforming  to  the  drug  and  food  law,  whether 
they  have  alcohol  and  narcotics  therein,  or  not? 

On  a  brand  of  salad  oil,  which  is  a  winter-strain  cotton-seed  oil,  can  it  be 
sold  under  the  brand  of  salad  oil,  or  must  it  state  that  it  is  cotton-seed  oil  ? 

It  seems  highly  desirable  that  an  erroneous  opinion  of  this 
kind  should  be  corrected.  The  opinions  or  decisions  of  this 
Department  do  not  add  anything  to  the  rules  and  regulations 
nor  take  anything  away  from  them.  They  therefore  are  not 
to  be  considered  in  the  light  of  rules  and  regulations.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  decisions  and  opinions  referred  to  express  the 
attitude  of  this  Department  in  relation  to  the  interpretation  of 
the  law  and  the  rules  and  regulations,  and  they  are  published 
for  the  information  of  the  officials  of  the  Department  who  may  be 
charged  with  the  execution  of  the  law  and  especially  to  acquaint 
manufacturers,  jobbers,  and  dealers  with  the  attitude  of  this 
Department  in  these  matters.    They  are  therefore  issued  more 

•  Since  space  does  not  permit  the  quoting  of  all  food  inspection  decisions  in  full  the 
attempt  has  been  made  to  reproduce  here  such  selections  as  will  be  most  useful  to 
readers  of  this  book. 

SOI 


502  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

in  an  advisory  than  in  a  mandatory  spirit.  It  is  clear  that  if  the 
manufacturers,  jobbers,  and  dealers  interpret  the  rules  and 
regulations  in  the  same  manner  as  they  are  interpreted  by  this 
Department,  and  follow  that  interpretation  in  their  business 
transactions,  no  prosecution  will  lie  against  them.  It  needs 
no  argument  to  show  that  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  must 
himself  come  to  a  decision  in  every  case  before  a  prosecution 
can  be  initiated,  since  it  is  on  his  report  that  the  district  attorney 
is  to  begin  a  prosecution  for  the  enforcement  of  the  provisions 
of  the  act. 

In  so  far  as  possible  it  is  advisable  that  the  opinions  of  this 
Department  respecting  the  questions  which  arise  may  be  pub- 
lished. It  may  often  occur  that  the  opinion  of  this  Department 
is  not  that  of  the  manufacturer,  jobber,  or  dealer.  In  this  case 
there  is  no  obligation  resting  upon  the  manufacturer,  jobber,  or 
dealer  to  follow  the  line  of  procedure  marked  out  or  indicated 
by  the  opinion  of  this  Department.  Each  one  is  entitled  to  his 
own  opinion  and  interpretation  and  to  assume  the  responsibility 
of  acting  in  harmony  therewith. 

It  may  be  proper  to  add  that  in  reaching  opinions  and  decisions 
on  these  cases  the  Department  keeps  constantly  in  view  the 
two  great  purposes  of  the  food  and  drugs  act,  namely,  to  prevent 
misbranding  and  to  prohibit  adulteration.  From  the  tenor  of 
the  correspondence  received  at  this  Department  and  from  the 
oral  hearings  which  have  been  held,  it  is  evident  that  an  over- 
whelming majority  of  the  manufacturers,  jobbers,  and  dealers 
of  this  country  are  determined  to  do  their  utmost  to  conform 
to  the  provisions  of  the  act,  to  support  it  in  every  particular, 
and  to  accede  to  the  opinions  of  this  Department  respecting  its 
construction.  It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  publication  of 
the  opinions  and  decisions  of  the  Department  will  lead  to  the 
avoidance  of  litigation  which  might  arise  due  to  decisions  which 
may  be  reached  by  this  Department  indicating  violations  of 
the  act,  violations  which  would  not  have  occurred  had  the 


APPENDIX  B  503 

opinions  and  decisions  of  the  Department  been  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  offender.  j^^g  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
,  Washington,  D.  C,  December  i,  igo6. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  52 

FORM   OF  LABEL 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  letter  recently  received : 

We  do  not  understand  the  requirements  of  the  regulations  respecting  the 
arrangement  of  labels ;  that'is,  the  order  in  which  the  various  features  of  the 
label  should  be  arranged. 

To  meet  the  requests  for  the  opinion  of  the  Department 
regarding  the  proper  arrangement  of  a  label,  the  following 
order  is  suggested : 

1.  Name  of  substance  or  product. 

2.  In  case  of  foods,  words  which  indicate  that  the  articles  are 
compounds,  mixtures,  or  blends,  and  the  word  "  Imitation," 
"  Compound,"  or  "  Blend,"  as  the  case  may  be. 

3.  Statements  designating  the  quantity  or  proportions  of  the 
ingredients  enumerated  in  the  law,  or  derivatives  and  prep- 
arations of  same,^  as  mentioned  under  Regulation  28 ;  also 
statements  of  other  extraneous  substances  whose  presence 
should  be  declared,  such  as  harmless  coloring  matter,  or  any 
necessary  statement  regarding  grade  or  quality. 

(The  statements  specified  in  paragraphs  i,  2,  and  3,  should 
appear  together  without  any  intervening  descriptive  or  explana- 
tory matter.) 

4.  Name  of  manufacturer  (if  given). 

5.  Place  of  manufacture  (if  given,  or  when  required  in  case 
of  food  mixtures  or  compounds  bearing  a  distinctive  name). 

It  is  stated  in  Regulation  17  that  if  the  name  of  the  manu- 
facturer and  place  of  manufacture  be  given  they  should  appear 

■  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  declaration  of  alcohol  and  its  derivatives 
is  not  required  in  foods. 


504 


FOOD   PRODUCTS 


upon  the  principal  label.    Although  the  law  does  not  require 

that  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  be  given,  or  the  place  of 

manufacture,  except  in  case  of  food  mixtures  and  compounds 

having  a  distinctive  name,  it  is  held  that  if  they  are  given  they 

must  be  true,  and  should  be  placed  with  the  required  information 

on  the  principal  label.     The  arrangement  of  the  label  is  the 

same  for  both  food  and  drug  products  and  an  example  of  each 

is  given. 

Sample  Label  for  Food  Product 


[Name  of  product.] 

[Declaration  required  by 
paragraphs  2  and  3.] 


[Name  of  manufacturer, 

if  given.] 

[Place  of  manufacture,  if 

given.] 


KEI'CHUP. 
ARTIFICIALLY  COLORED. 


[Descriptive  matter,  if  desired,  but 
preferably  at  bottom  of  label.] 


BLANK  &  CO., 
PORTLAND,  ME. 


[Descriptive  matter,  if  desired] 


Sample  Label  for  Drug  Product 


[Name  of  product.] 

[Declarations     required 
by  paragraphs  2  and  3.] 


[N^me  of  manufacturer, 

if  given.] 

[Place  of  manufacture,  if 

given.] 


COUGH   SYRUP. 

ALCOHOL,  10  PER  CENT. 
MORPHINE,  h  GRAIN  PER 

OUNCE. 
CHLOROFORM,  40  MINIMS 

PER  OUNCE. 


[Descriptive  matter,  if  desired,  but 
preferably  at  bottom  of  label.] 


JOHN  JONES  &  CO., 
WASHINGTON,  D.C. 


[Descriptive  matter,  if  desired.] 


APPENDIX   B  505 

Any  descriptive  or  explanatory  matter  that  may  appear  on  the 
principal  label,  therefore,  should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
label,  or  between  No.  3  and  No.  4,  and  should  be  clearly  sep- 
arated from  other  features  of  the  label  by  means  of  a  suitable 
line  or  space.  Statements  regarding  the  reason  for  using 
alcohol,  artificial  coloring  matter,  and  other  extraneous  sub- 
stances, come  under  the  head  of  descriptive  or  explanatory 
matter,  and  should  not  be  interspersed  with  the  declarations 
required  under  Nos.  2  and  3. 

The  information  called  for  under  No.  3  should  be  so  worded 
as  to  give  only  the  required  information,  as,  for  example, 
"  alcohol  17  per  cent  "  or  "  artificially  colored."  All  numbers 
used  in  expressing  quantity  or  proportion  of  substances  required 
to  be  stated  (see  Regulation  28)  should  be  expressed  in  the  Arabic 
notation. 

Each  substance  required  to  be  declared  under  No.  3  should 
be  printed  on  a  separate  line  and  in  type  specified  in  Reg- 
ulation 17  (c). 

James  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Washington,  D.  C,  January  18,  igoy. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  58 

THE  LABELING  OF  PRODUCTS  USED  AS  FOODS  AND  DRUGS 
AS  WELL  AS  FOR  TECHNICAL  AND   OTHER  PURPOSES 

Frequent  requests  for  information  relative  to  the  proper 
labeling  of  products  bearing  the  names  of  foods  and  drugs,  but 
used  also  for  technical  and  other  purposes,  are  received.  The 
following  are  typical : 

We  will  kindly  ask  you  to  advise  us  in  regard  to  the  new  law  that  governs 
the  line  of  oils.  We  manufacture  a  compound  product,  so-called  "  turpen- 
tine," which  contains  pure  turpentine  and  a  very  fine  petroleum  product.     It 


5o6  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

iaoised  in  most  branches  where  pure- turpentine  is  used,  with  the  ^ccption  of 
medicinal  purposes,  for  which  we  do  not  sell  it. 

We  understand  that  if  we  were  to  sell  any  cotton-seed  oil  so  branded  as  to 
indicate  that  it  was  intended  to  be  used  as  a  food,  as,  for  example,  under  the 
brand  "  Blank  Salad  Oil,"  it  would  be  necessary  to  observe  the  requirements 
of  the  law  referred  to ;  but  we  are  in  doubt  and  would  be  glad  to  have  your 
opinion  as  to  whether  a  sale  or  shipment  of  this  oil  (for  lubricating  purposes) 
under  the  ordinary  trade  brand  of  cotton-seed  oil,  and  without  anything  to 
indicate  that  it  was  of  a  quality  suitable  for  use  as  a  salad  oil,  would  subject 
us  to  the  provisions  of  the  act. 

During  personal  interviews  the  question  of  marking  chemical 
reagents  has  also  been  discussed. 

Products  used  in  the  arts  and  for  technical  purposes  are  not 
subject  to  the  food*  and  drugs  act.  It  is,  however,  a  well- 
recognized  fact  that  many  articles  are  used  indiscriminately 
for  food,  medicinal,  and  technical  purposes.  It  is  also  well 
known  that  some  products  employed  for  technical  purposes  are 
adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  this  act.  In- 
asmuch as  it  is  impossible  to  follow  such  products  into  con- 
sumption in  order  to  determine  to  what  use  they  are  finally  put, 
it  is  desirable  that  an  article  sold  under  a  name  commonly 
applied  to  such  article  for  food,  drug,  and  technical  purj)oses 
be  so  labeled  as  to  avoid  possible  mistakes.  The  ordinary 
name  of  a  pure  and  normal  product,  whether  sold  for  food,  drug, 
technical,  or  other  purposes,  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Pure  cot- 
ton-seed oil  or  turpentine  may  be  sold  without  any  restrictions 
whatever,  whether  such  article  is  sold  for  food,  medicinal,  or 
technical  purposes,  but  it  is  suggested  that  a  cotton-seed  oil 
intended  for  lubricating  purposes,  or  a  so-called  turpentine 
consisting  of  a  mixture  of  turpentine  and  petroleum  oils,  used 
by  the  paint  trade,  be  plainly  marked  so  as  to  indicate  that  they 
are  notfto  be  employed  for  food  or  medicinal  purposes.  Such 
phrases  as  the  following  may  be  used :  "  Not  for  Food  Purposes," 
"  Not  for  Medicinal  Use,"  or  for  "  Technical  Purposes  Only," 
or  "  For  Lubricating  Purposes,"  etc. 


APPENDIX   B  507 

In  order  to  avoid  complication  it  is  suggested  that  chemical 
reagents  sold  as  such  be  marked  with  such  phrases  as  the  follow- 
ing :  "  For  Analytical  Purposes,"  or  "  Chemical  Reagent,"  etc. 

James  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  AgrictUture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  March  ij,-  igoy. 

\  FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  76 

DYES,   CHEMICALS,  AND   PRESERVATIV^ES  IN   FOODS 

It  is  provided  in  regulation  1 5  of  the  rules  and  regulations  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  food  and  drugs  act,  that  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  shall  determine  by  chemical  or  other  examination 
those  substances  which  are  permitted  or  inhibited  in  food 
products ;  that  he  shall  determine  from  time  to  time  the  prin- 
ciples which  shall  guide  the  use  of  colors,  preservatives,  and  other 
substances  added  to  foods ;  and  that  when  these  findings  and 
determinations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  are  approved 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  the  Secretary  of  Commerce 
and  Labor,  the  principles  so  established  shall  become  a  part  of 
the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  enforcement  of  the  food  and 
drugs  act. 

The  law  provides  that  no  food  or  food  product  intended  for 
interstate  commerce,  nor  any  food  or  food  product  manufactured 
or  sold  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  in  any  Territory  of  the 
United  States,  or  for  foreign  commerce,  except  as  thereinafter 
provided,  shall  contain  substances  which  lessen  the  wholesome- 
ness  or  which  add  any  deleterious  properties  thereto.  It  has 
been  determined  that  no  drug,  chemical,  or  harmful  or  deleterious 
dye  or  preservative  may  be  used.  Common  salt,  sugar,  wood 
smoke,  potable  distilled  liquors,  vinegar,  and  condiments  may 
be  used.  Pending  further  investigation,  the  use  of  saltpeter 
is  allowed. 


5o8  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

Pending  the  investigation  of  the  conditions  attending  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture,  and  the  effects  upon  health,  of  the  com- 
binations mentioned  in  this  paragraph,  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  will  institute  no  prosecution  in  the  case  of  the  appli- 
cation of  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  (sulphur  dioxid),  as  usually 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  those  foods  and  food  products 
which  contain  acetaldehyde,  sugars,  etc.,  with  which  sulphurous 
acid  may  combine,  if  the  total  amount  of  sulphur  dioxid  in  the 
finished  product  does  not  exceed  350  milligrams  per  liter  in 
wines,  or  350  milligrams  per  kilogram  in  other  food  products, 
of  which  not  over  70  milligrams  is  in  a  free  state. 

The  label  of  each  package  of  sulphured  foods,  .  .  .  shall  bear 
a  statement  that  the  food  is  preserved  with  sulphur  dioxid, . . .  and 
the  label  must  not  bear  a  serial  number  assigned  to  any  guaranty 
filed  with  the  Department  of  Agriculture  nor  any  statement 
that  the  article  is  guaranteed  to  conform  to  the  food  and  drugs 
act. 

The  use  of  any  dye,  harmless  or  otherwise,  to  color  or  stain 
a  food  in  a  manner  whereby  damage  or  inferiority  is  concealed 
is  specifically  prohibited  by  law.  The  use  in  food  for  any  pur- 
pose of  any  mineral  dye  or  any  coal-tar  dye,  except  those  coal- 
tar  dyes  hereinafter  listed,  will  be  grounds  for  prosecution. 
Pending  further  investigations  now  under  way  and  the  announce- 
ment thereof,  the  coal-tar  dyes  hereinafter  named,  made  specif- 
ically for  use  in  foods,  and  which  bear  a  guaranty  from  the 
manufacturer  that  they  are  free  from  subsidiary  products  and 
represent  the  actual  substance  the  name  of  which  they  bear,  may 
be  used  in  foods.  In  every  case  a  certificate  that  the  dye  in 
question  has  been  tested  by  competent  experts  and  found  to  be 
free  from  harmful  constituents  must  be  filed  with  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  and  approved  by  him. 

The  following  coal-tar  dyes  which  may  be  used  in  this  manner 
are  given  numbers,  the  numbers  preceding  the  names  referring 
to  the  number  of  the  dye  in  question  as  fisted  in  A.  G.  Green's 


\  APPENDIX  B  509 

edition  of  the  Schultz- Julius  Systematic  Survey  of  the  Organic 
Colormg  Matters,  published  in  1904. 
The  list  is  as  follows :  — 

Red  shades: 
107.  Amaranth. 
56.  Ponceau  3  R. 
517.  Erythrosin. 

Orange  shade: 
85.  Orange  I. 

Yellow  shade: 

4.  Naphthol  yellow  S. 

Green  shade: 

435.  Light  green  S.  F.  yellowish. 

Blue  shade: 
692.  Indigo  disulfoacid. 

Each  of  these  colors  shall  be  free  from  any  coloring  matter 
other  than  the  one  specified  and  shall  not  contain  any  con- 
tamination due  to  imperfect  or  incomplete  manufacture.     .  .  . 

H.  W.  Wiley, 
Frederick  L.  Dunlap, 
Geo.  p.  McCabe, 
Board  oj  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 

Approved : 
James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Geo.  B.  Cortelyou. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Oscar  Straus, 

Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 
Washington,  D.  C,  June  18,  igoy. 


5IO  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  77 

CERTIFICATE   AND    CONTROL   OF   DYES   PERMISSIBLE   FOR 
USE  IN   COLORING   FOODS   AND   FOODSTUFFS 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  is  in  receipt  of  a  large  number 
of  inquiries  concerning  the  interpretation  to  be  put  on  that 
portion  of  F.  I.  D.  76  which  refers  to  coal-tar  dyes  not  inhibited 
for  use  in  coloring  foods  and  foodstuffs. 

The  term  "  manufacturer,"  as  used  in  F.  I.  D.  76  and  in  the 
present  decision,  appHes  to  a  person  or  company  responsible 
for  the  purification  of  the  crude  or  raw  dye  for  the  purpose  of 
placing  it  in  a  condition  fit  for  use  in  foods  and  foodstuffs ;  or 
to  the  accredited  selling  agent  in  the  United  States  of  such  per- 
son or  company.  Such  accredited  agent  must  file,  on  behalf 
of  his  foreign  principal,  if  the  latter  does  not  file  it,  a  manu- 
facturer's certificate,  and  it  will  be  considered  that  the  responsi- 
bility for  such  certificate  will  rest  upon  the  accredited  agent  and 
not  upon  the  foreign  principal. 

For  each  permitted  dye  two  certificates  must  be  filed  by  the 
manufacturer,  the  first  to  be  known  as  the  "  Foundation  certifi- 
cate," the  second  known  as  the  "  Manufacturer's  certificate." 
It  is  suggested  that  the  foundation  certificate  be  in  the  following 
form : 

Foundation  Certificate 

I, ,  the  undersigned,  residing  at 

(Street  address.) 

in  the  city  of ,  county  of ,  State 

of ,  hereby  certify  under  oath  that  I  have  personally 

examined  and  tested  for ,  of , 

(Full  name  of  concern.)  (City.) 

county ,  of   ,   State   of   ,   the 

materiaf  known  as ,  which  corresponds  to  the  coloring 

matter  numbered in  A.  G.  Green's  Edition  (1Q04)  of  the  Schultz- 

Julius  "  Systematic  Survey  of  the  Organic  Coloring  Matters,"  and  of  which  a 
one  (i)  pound  sample  marked is  herewith  submitted.     I  have  found 


APPENDIX   B  511 

the  said  material  to  consist  of  that  coloring  matter  only,  to  be  free  from  harm- 
ful constituents,  and  not  to  contain  any  contamination  due  to  imperfect  or 
incomplete  manufacture. 

( Here  insert  a  complete  statement  of  all  the  tests  applied  to  determine : 

A.  Identity. 

B.  Absence  of 

a.  Mineral  or  metallic  poisons. 

b.  Harmful  organic  constituents. 

c.  Contamination  due  to  improper  or  incomplete  manufacture. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  setting  forth  fully  the  quantities  or  volume 
of  each  material  and  reagent  employed,  its  strength  or  concentration,  tempera- 
ture, duration  of  treatment,  limits  of  delicacy  of  tests  employed,  and  any  other 
information  that  is  necessary  to  enable  others  to  repeat  accurately  and  correctly 
all  the  work  herein  referred  to  and  thus  arrive  at  identical  results.  For  each  test 
performed,  state  what  conclusions  are  drawn  from  it  and  why.) 


(Signature  of  chemist  making  the  examination.) 

Certification 

For   the   manufacturer's   certificate   the   following   form   is 
suggested : 

Manufacturer's  Certificate 

I, ,  the  undersigned,  a  resident  of  the  United  States 

doing  business  at ,  in  the  city  of , 

(Street  address.) 

county  of ,  State  of ; under  the 

style  of ,  do  hereby  certify  under  oath  that  I  am 

(Full  name  of  concern.) 

the  manufacturer  of  the  material  known  as ,  which 

corresponds  to  the  coloring  matter  numbered in  the  1904  Green 

Edition  of  the  Schultz- Julius  Tables,  of  which  the  accompanying  foundation 

certificate,  signed  by  ,  the  examining  chemist,  is 

the  report  of  an  analysis  of  a  fair,  average  sample  drawn  from  a  total  batch 
of pounds. 


(Signature  of  manufacturer.) 

Certification. 

The  foundation  certificate  must  be  filed  with  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  at  the  time  the  first  request  is  made  of  the  Secretary 


512  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

to  use  any  or  all  of  the  permitted  dyes  for  coloring  foods  and 
foodstuffs. 

The  following  form  of  supplemental  certificate  is  suggested 
in  those  cases  where  a  manufacturer  desires  to  apply  for  per- 
mission to  place  on  the  market  a  new  batch  of  a  coal-tar  dye, 
which  dye  has  already  had  a  foundation  certificate  and  a  manu- 
facturer's certificate  filed  for  it. 

Supplemental  Certificate 

I, ,  the  undersigned,  residing  at , 

(Street  address.) 

in  the  city  of ,  county  of ,  State 

of ,  hereby  certify  under  oath  that  I  have  personally 

examined  and  tested  for ,  of , 

(Full  name  of  concern.)  (City.) 

county  of ,    State  of   ,   the 

material  known  as ,  which  corresponds  to  the  coloring 

matter  numbered in  A.  G.  Green's  Edition  (1904)  of  the  Schultz- 

Julius  "  Systematic  Survey  of  the  Organic  Coloring  Matters,"  of  which  a  one 

(i)  pound  sample  marked is  herewith  submitted,  and  I  have  found  it 

to  consist  of  that  coloring  matter  only  and  to  be  free  from  harmful  constitu- 
ents and  not  to  contain  any  contamination  due  to  imperfect  or  incomplete 
manufacture. 

This  examination  was  conducted  in  strict  accordance  with  the  detailed 
scheme  of  examination  fully  set  forth  in  the  foundation  certificate  filed 


(Date.) 

(Signature  of  chemist.) 

Certification. 

This  supplemental  certificate  should  likewise  be  accompanied 
by  the  same  type  of  manufacturer's  certificate  as  is  described 
above. 

When  the  certificates  filed  with  the  Department  01  Agri- 
culture are  found  to  be  satisfactory,  a  "lot  number  "  will  be 
assigned  to  each  batch,  which  lot  number  shall  apply  to  that 
batch  alone  and  to  no  other  batch  of  the  same  color. 


APPENDIX  B  513 

According  to  F.  I.  D.  76,  the  seven  permitted  coal-tar  dyes 
therein  named,  made  specifically  for  use  in  foods,  may  be  used 
in  foods  provided  they  bear  a  guaranty  from  the  manufacturer 
that  they  are  free  from  subsidiary  products  and  represent  the 
actual  substance  the  name  of  which  they  bear.  The  guaranty 
herein  considered  shall  be  applied  as  follows : 

Each  package  sold  by  the  manufacturer  should  bear  the  legend 
"  Part  of  Certified  Lot  Number  .  ..."  The  foundation  certif- 
icate, as  well  as  the  corresponding  supplemental  certificate, 
does  not  apply  to  any  certified  dye  beyond  the  package  originally 
prepared  by  the  one  establishing  this  certificate.  If  such  a 
package  be  broken  and  the  dye  therein  contained  be  repacked, 
the  repacked  dye,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  becomes  an 
uncertified  dye,  and  as  such  is  inhibited. 

There  is  no  objection  on  the  part  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture to  mixtures  made  from  these  permitted  and  certified 
dyes,  by  those  who  have  filed  certificates  with  the  Department, 
but  one  (i)  pound  samples  of  such  mixtures,  and  the  trade 
name  under  which  each  mixture  is  sold,  must  be  sent  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  no  such  trade  name  or  keyed 
modification  thereof  may  be  used  for  any  other  mixture. 

The  exact  formula  —  that  is,  the  true  names  as  well  as  the 
numbers  assigned  to  the  original  package  and  the  proportions 
of  the  ingredients  used  —  should  be  deposited  with  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  but  such  formula  need  not  appear  on  the  label ; 
in  lieu  of  which  may  appear  the  legend  "  Made  from  Certified 
Lots  Number  .  .  .  and  Number  .  .  .  ,"  etc.  If  the  packages  of 
these  mixtures  bearing  this  legend  be  broken  and  repacked,  the 
mixture  becomes,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  an  uncertified 
one,  and  hence  its  use  is  inhibited ;  that  is,  the  guaranty  of  the 
manufacturer  shall  extend  only  to  the  packages  prepared  by 
himself  and  only  for  so  long  as  they  remain  in  the  unbroken 
form.  Whenever  new  lots  of  previously  established  mixtures 
are  made,  making  use  of  new  certified  straight  dyes  therein, 
2  L 


514  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

thus  necessitating  a  change  in  the  label,  i-pound  samples 
of  the  new  mixtures  should  be  sent  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture. 

The  term  "  competent  experts  "  as  used  in  F.  I.  D.  76  applies 
to  those  who,  by  reason  of  their  training  and  experience,  are 
able  to  examine  coal-tar  coloring  matter  to  ascertain  its  identity 
and  to  determine  the  absence  of  foreign  matter  not  properly 
belonging  to  the  product,  which,  if  present,  renders  the  substance 
unfit  for  use  in  food  products. 

The  term  "  batch  "  as  used  above  is  such  a  quantity  of  the 
product  as  has  undergone  the  same  treatment  at  the  same  time 
and  the  same  place  as  a  unit  and  not  otherwise  —  that  is,  the 
lot  for  one  purification.^ 

Those  to  whom  certification  is  given  with  respect  to  their 
dyes  and  a  lot  number  assigned  should  control  the  sale  of  such 
batches  so  that  they  may  account  to  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture by  inspection  of  their  books  or  otherwise  for  the  desti- 
nation and  disposal  of  each  batch. 

Those  using  these  certified  dyes  in  the  preparation  of  foods 
and  foodstuffs  must  be  in  a  position  to  substantiate  the 
fact  that  the  dyes  so  used  were  of  a  properly  certified 
character. 

There  is  no  guaranty  on  the  part  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture that  because  the  tests  described  in  any  foundation  certif- 
icate have  once  been  accepted,  the  permanency  of  such  accept- 
ance is  assured. 

In  those  cases  where  a  package  of  a  straight  dye  or  a  mixture 
of  such  dyes,  bearing  proper  labels  to  the  effect  that  they  are 
of  a  certified  lot  or  lots,  is  broken  and  repacked  in  still  smaller 
lots,  or  treated  with  solvents,  mixed,  etc.,  the  person  or  company 
so  treeing  these  dyes  must  stand  sponsor  for  their  integrity. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  submitting  a  statement  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  follows: 

^  This  definition  is  extended  in  Food  Inspection  Decision  io6  (see  below). 


APPENDIX   B  515 

Secondary  Certificate 

I, ,  residing  at ,  do  hereby 

(Full  address.) 

certify  under  oath  that  I  have  repacked lbs.  of  certified  lot  (or  lots) 

purchased  from • ,  of 

This  repacking  has  been  accomplished  in  the  following 

fashion :   

(Full  description  of  what  has  been  done  with  the  lot  or  lots.) 

(Name.) 

Certification. 

On  presentation  of  this  certified  form,  properly  filled  out, 
to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  a  lot  number  will  be  assigned, 
which  number  should  be  used  in  labeling  according  to  the  methods 
already  described.  If,  for  example,  a  portion  of  lot  number 
"  127  "is  repacked  in  smaller  packages,  the  lot  number  "  127  A  " 
will  be  assigned  to  this  repacked  dye,  to  enable  the  Department 
to  follow  this  into  consumption  if  necessary  and  still  trace  it 
back  to  the  person  by  whom  the  dye  was  originally  certified, 

H.  W.  Wiley, 
f.  l.  dunlap, 
Geo.  p.  McCabe, 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 
Approved : 
James  Wilson, 

Secretary  oj  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  September  16,  1907. 

FOOD  INSPECTION   DECISION   106 

AMENDMENT  TO   FOOD   INSPECTION   DECISION   77 
(A  definition  of  the  terms  "  Batch"  and  "Mixtures"  as  used  therein.) 

The  definition  of  the  term  "  batch  "  as  given  on  page  4,  lines 
12  to  14  of  Food  Inspection  Decision  77,  is  hereby  extended 


5l6  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

to  include  also  the  contents  of  any  one  package,  cask,  or  other 
container  holding  500  pounds  or  less  of  dye,  even  though  the 
contents  of  such  package,  cask,  or  container  has  not  undergone 
the  same  treatment  at  the  same  time  and  the  same  place  as  a 
unit. 

The  word  "  mixtures  "  as  used  on  page  3,  line  15  from  the 
bottom,  and  following,  of  Food  Inspection  Decision  77  is  hereby 
declared  to  mean  not  only  such  mixtures  as  consist  wholly  of 
certified  coal-tar  dyes  but  also  those  which  contain  one  or  more 
certified  coal-tar  dyes  (and  no  other  coal-tar  dye  or  dyes)  in 
combination  with  other  components,  constituents,  or  ingredients 
not  coal-tar  dyes,  which  other  components,  constituents,  or 
ingredients  are  in  and  of  themselves  or  in  the  combination  used 
harmless  and  not  detrimental  to  health  or  are  not  prohibited  for 
use  in  food  products ;  the  exact  formula  of  such  mixtures,  in- 
cluding all  of  the  components,  constituents,  or  ingredients,  or 
other  parts  of  the  mixture,  together  with  a  statement  of  the 
total  weight  of  mixture  so  made,  must  be  deposited  with  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  a  one  (i)  pound  sample  thereof 
must  be  sent  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  but  such 
formula  need  not  appear  on  the  label ;  in  lieu  of  which  may 
appear  the  legend  "  Made  from  certified  lots  Number  .  .  . 
and  Number  .  .  .  ,  etc.,"  and  no  mention  need  be  made  of 
any  constituent  or  constituents  other  than  of  the  certified  coal- 
tar  dyes  employed. 

H.  W.  Wiley, 
f.  l.  dunlap, 
Geo.  p.  McCabe, 

Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 
Approved : 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Washington,  D.  C,  March  iq,  iqoq. 


APPENDIX  B  517 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION   126 
SALTS  OF  TIN  IN  FOOD 

The  attention  of  the  board  has  been  directed  to  canned  goods 
which  contain  salts  of  tin  derived  from  the  solvent  action  of  the 
contents  of  the  package  upon  the  tin  coating.  Pending  further 
investigations  on  this  question  all  canned  goods  which  are 
prepared  prior  to  January  i,  191 1,  will  be  permitted  to  enter 
and  pass  into  interstate  commerce  without  detention  or  restric- 
tion in  so  far  as  their  content  of  tin  salts  is  concerned.  All 
foods  which  are  canned  subsequently  to  January  i,  191 1,  will 
be  permitted  importation  and  interstate  commerce  if  they  do 
not  contain  more  than  300  milligrams  of  tin  per  kilogram,  or 
salts  of  tin  equivalent  thereto.  When  the  amount  of  tin,  or  an 
equivalent  amount  of  salts  of  tin,  is  greater  than  300  milligrams 
per  kilogram,  entry  of  such  canned  goods  packed  subsequently 
to  January  i,  191 1,  will  be  refused,  and  if  found  in  interstate 
commerce  proper  action  will  be  taken. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  board  that  the  trade  will  experience 
little  hardship  in  adjusting  itself  to  this  condition,  as  the  re- 
sults of  examinations  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  various 
types  of  canned  goods  indicate  that  in  a  very  large  majority 
of  cases  inconsiderable  quantities  of  tin  are  found,  well  within 
the  limit  herein  set. 

H.  W.  Wiley, 

F.   L.   DUNLAP, 

Geo.  P.  McCabe, 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 
Approved : 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C,  September  22,  igio. 


5l8  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

FOOD   INSPECTION   DECISION   129 

THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  STRAIGHT  DYES  AND  MIXTURES 
"under  secondary  CERTIFICATES.  (AMENDMENT  TO 
F.   I.   D.    77.) 

In  Food  Inspection  Decision  77  provision  is  made  for  the 
recertification  of  straight  dyes  (i.e.,  the  seven  accepted  dyes 
of  F.  I.  D.  76)  and  mixtures  thereof,  with  or  without  other  harm- 
less ingredients. 

Doubt  has  been  expressed  as  to  whether  the  requirements  of 
F.  I.  D.  77,  with  respect  to  certification,  are  the  same  for  those 
who  are  not  manufacturers  as  they  are  for  manufacturers.  This 
amendment  is  issued  relative  to  recertification  in  order  to  remove 
uncertainty  and  to  indicate  the  scope  of  F.  I.  D.  77. 

All  persons,  manufacturers  or  others,  requesting  certification 
of  mixtures  or  recertification  of  straight  dyes,  or  of  mixtures  or 
combinations  thereof,  shall  submit  the  following  form  of  secon- 
dary certificate  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture : 

Secondary  Certificate 

I, ,  residing  at ,  do  hereby  dep)ose  and  state 

(Full  address.) 

that  I  have  repacked  ....  lbs.  of  certified  lot  (or  lots) purchased  from 

of    

This  repacking  has  been  accomplished  in  the  following  fashion : 

(Full  description  of  what  has  been  done  with  the  lot  or  lots.) 

Certified  mixture  No.  J.D.  &  Co ,  or  certified  straight  dye  No.  J.  D. 

&  Co 

Trade  name 


,  (Name.) 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  me, ,  in  and  for  the  . 

of  ......  at ,  this  ....  day  of , 


(Name  of  officer  authorized  to  administer  oaths.) 


APPENDIX  B  519 

When  the  secondary  certificate  refers  to  mixtures,  the  term 
"  mixture  "  means  — 

not  only  such  mixtures  as  consist  wholly  of  certified  coal-tar  dyes,  but  also  those 
which  contain  one  or  more  certified  coal-tar  dyes  (and  no  other  coal-tar  dye  or 
dj'cs)  in  combination  with  other  components,  constituents,  or  ingredients 
not  coal-tar  dyes,  which  other  components,  constituents,  or  ingredients  are 
in  and  of  themselves  or  in  the  combination  used  harmless  and  not  detri- 
mental to  health  or  are  not  prohibited  for  use  in  food  products ;  the  exact 
formula  of  such  mixtures,  including  all  of  the  components,  constituents,  or 
ingredients,  or  other  parts  of  the  mixture,  together  with  a  statement  of  the 
total  weight  of  mixtures  so  made,  must  be  deposited  with  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture.     (F.  I.  D.  io6.) 

The  term  "  straight  dye,"  as  used  herein,  refers  to  the  seven 
dyes  specified  in  F.  I.  D.  76. 

In  the  case  of  mixtures  one  (i)  pound  samples,  and  in  the  case 
of  straight  dyes  one  half  (|)  pound  samples  must  be  submitted 
with  the  secondary  certificate.  If  larger  samples  are  needed  in 
individual  cases  the  Department  will  ask  for  them. 

Only  those  mixtures  will  be  certified  which  contain  no  other 
dyes  than  coal-tar  dyes  previously  certified.  Mixtures  contain- 
ing animal  or  vegetable  dyes  are  not  subject  to  certification. 

The  above  form  for  secondary  certificates  varies  but  slightly 
from  that  given  in  Food  Inspection  Decision  No.  77.  It  con- 
tains the  addition  "Certified  mixture  No.  J.  D.  &  Co.  ..." 
and  "  Certified  straight  dye  No.  J.  D.  &  Co.  .  .  ."  When  the 
manufacturer  or  other  person  submits  a  secondary  certificate, 
whichever  legend  is  appropriate  to  the  certificate  is  to  be  used. 
The  initials  are  to  be  those  of  the  person  or  firm  filing  the  certif- 
icate ;  the  blank  space  is  to  be  filled  with  the  number  of  the 
secondary  certificate  filed  by  that  particular  person  or  firm. 
For  example,  the  firm  of  J.  D.  &  Co.  has  already  filed  fourteen 
secondary  certificates,  the  new  one  to  be  filed  under  the  form 
given  above  will  then  be  labeled  "  Certified  mixture  No.  J.  D. 
&  Co.  IS,"  or  "  Certified  straight  dye  No.  J.  D.  &  Co.  15," 
as  the  case  may  be.     That  is,  the  recertified  straight  dyes  or 


520  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

certified  mixtures  are  to  be  given  a  number  in  regular  order, 
according  to  the  number  of  such  secondary  certificates  filed  by 
any  person  or  firm.  The  completed  legend  is  the  one  to  be 
used  in  marketing  the  products  thus  submitted  under  the  second- 
ary certificate.  Notification  will  be  given  of  the  acceptance 
or  rejection  of  the  certificate  when  investigation  of  the  product 
has  been  completed. 

Makers  of  secondary  certificates  must  submit  the  trade  name 
of  mixtures  produced,  and  no  such  trade  name  or  keyed  modi- 
fication thereof  should  be  used  on  any  other  mixture  prepared 
by  the  same  person  or  company. 

Secondary  certificates  are  to  be  sent  in  duplicate  to  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture;  the  duplicate  need  not,  however,  be 
signed  or  sworn  to.  The  samples  should  be  submitted  with 
the  secondary  certificates. 

H.  W.  Wiley, 
f.  l.  dunlap, 
Geo.  p.  McCabe, 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 
Approved : 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  November  8,  igio. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  135 
SACCHARIN  IN  FOOD 

At  the  request  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Referee 
Board  of  Consulting  Scientific  Experts  has  conducted  an  in- 
vestigation as  to  the  effect  on  health  of  the  use  of  saccharin. 
The  iriVestigation  has  been  concluded,  and  the  Referee  Board 
reports  that  the  continued  use  of  saccharin  for  a  long  time  in 
quantities  over  three  tenths  of  a  gram  per  day  is  liable  to  impair 
digestion;   and  that  the  addition  of  saccharin  as  a  substitute 


APPENDIX  B  '521 

for  cane  sugar  or  other  forms  of  sugar  reduces  the  food  value 
of  the  sweetened  product  and  hence  lowers  its  quality. 

Saccharin  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  sugar  in  over 
thirty  classes  of  foods  in  which  sugar  is  commonly  recognized 
as  a  normal  and  valuable  ingredient.  If  the  use  of  saccharin 
be  continued  it  is  evident  that  amounts  of  saccharin  may  readily 
be  consumed  which  will,  through  continual  use,  produce  di- 
gestive disturbances.  In  every  food  in  which  saccharin  is  used, 
some  other  sweetening  agent  known  to  be  harmless  to  health 
can  be  substituted,  and  there  is  not  even  a  pretense  that  saccharin 
is  a  necessity  in  the  manufacture  of  food  products.  Under  the 
food  and  drugs  act  articles  of  food  are  adulterated  if  they  con- 
tain added  poisonous  or  other  added  deleterious  ingredients 
which  may  render  them  injurious  to  health.  Articles  of  food 
are  also  adulterated  within  the  meaning  of  the  act,  if  substances 
have  been  mixed  and  packed  with  the  foods  so  as  to  reduce  or 
lower  or  injuriously  affect  their  quality  or  strength.  The  find- 
ings of  the  Referee  Board  show  that  saccharin  in  food  is  such 
an  added  poisonous  or  other  added  deleterious  ingredient  as 
is  contemplated  by  the  act,  and  also  that  the  substitution  of 
saccharin  for  sugar  in  foods  reduces  and  lowers  their  quality. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  therefore,  will  regard  as  adul- 
terated under  the  food  and  drugs  act  foods  containing  saccharin 
which,  on  and  after  July  i,  191 1,  are  manufactured  or  offered 
for  sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  Territories,  or  shipped 
in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  or  offered  for  importation 
into  the  United  States. 

Franklin  MacVeagh, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Charles  Nagel, 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 
Washington,  D.  C,  April  26,  igii. 


522  FOOD    PRODUCTS 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  138 

SACCHARIN  IN   FOOD 

Paragraph  3  of  Food  Inspection  Decision  No.  135  is  hereby 
modified  to  read  as  follows : 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  therefore,  will  regard  as  adulterated  under 
the  food  and  drugs  act  foods  containing  saccharin  which,  on  and  after 
January  i,  191 2,  are  manufactured  or  offered  for  sale  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  or  the  Territories,  or  shipped  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce, 
or  offered  for  importation  into  the  United  States. 

Franklin  MacVeagh, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
James  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Charles  Nagel, 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 
Washington,  D.  C,  June  20,  igii. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  142 
SACCHARIN  IN  FOOD 

The  following  decision  which  relates  to  the  use  of  saccharin  in 
food  will  not  go  into  effect  until  the  ist  of  April,  1912,  the  month 
of  March  being  given  to  interested  parties  so  as  to  arrange  their 
business  and  take  such  steps  as  they  deem  proper. 

James  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  March  i,  1912. 

After  full  consideration  of  the  representations  made  in  behalf 
of  th&  manufacturers  of  saccharin  at  the  hearing  before  us  and 
of  the  briefs  filed  by  their  attorneys,  as  well  as  the  briefs  filed, 
at  our  request,  by  officers  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  we 
conclude  that  the  use  of  saccharin  in  normal  foods,  within  the 


APPENDIX  B  523 

jurisdiction  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  is  a  violation  of  law  and 
will  be  prosecuted. 

It  is  true  that  the  Referee  Board  did  not  find  that  the  use  in 
foods  of  saccharin  in  small  quantities  (up  to  0.3  gram  daily)  is 
injurious  to  health.  However,  the  Referee  Board  did  find 
that  saccharin  used  in  quantities  over  0.3  gram  per  day  for  a 
considerable  period  is  liable  to  disturb  digestion,  and  the  Food 
and  Drugs  Act  provides  that  articles  of  food  are  adulterated 
which  contain  any  added  poisonous  or  other  added  deleterious 
ingredient  which  may  render  them  injurious  to  health. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
reports  that  saccharin  has  been  found  in  more  than  fifty  kinds 
of  foods  in  common  use.  It  is  argued,  therefore,  that  if  the  use 
of  saccharin  in  foods  be  allowed,  the  consumer  may  very  easily 
ingest,  day  by  day,  over  0.3  gram,  the  quantity  which,  according 
to  the  findings  of  the  Referee  Board,  is  liable  to  produce  dis- 
turbances of  digestion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  claimed  by 
the  manufacturers  that  the  sweetening  power  of  saccharin 
is  so  great  that,  in  a  normal  dietary,  the  amount  of  saccharin 
ingested  daily  would  not  exceed  0.3  gram,  the  amount  found  to 
be  harmless  by  the  Referee  Board. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  plain,  from  the  finding  of  the  Ref- 
eree Board,  that  the  substitution  of  saccharin  for  sugar  lowers 
the  quality  of  the  food.  The  only  use  of  saccharin  in  foods  is 
as  a  sweetener,  and  when  it  is  so  used,  it  inevitably  displaces 
the  sugar  of  an  equivalent  sweetening  power.  Sugar  has  a  food 
value  and  saccharin  has  none.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  nor- 
mal foods  sweetened  with  saccharin  are  adulterated  under  the 
law. 

In  making  this  decision  we  are  not  unmindful  of  the  fact  that 
persons  suffering  from  certain  diseases  may  be  directed  by  their 
physicians  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  sugar.  In  cases  of  this 
kind,  saccharin  is  often  prescribed  as  a  substitute  sweetening 
agent.    This  decision  will  not  in  any  manner  interfere  with 


524  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

such  a  use  of  saccharin.  The  Food  and  Drugs  Act  provides 
that  any  substance  which  is  intended  to  be  used  for  the  pre- 
vention, cure,  or  mitigation  of  disease  is  a  drug,  and  a  product 
containing  saccharin  and  plainly  labeled  to  show  that  the  mix- 
ture is  intended  for  the  use  of  those  persons  who,  on  account  of 
disease,  must  abstain  from  the  use  of  sugar,  falls  within  the  class 
of  drugs  anSTis  not  affected  by  this  decision. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  dissents. 

James  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Charles  Nagel, 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 
Washington,  D.  C,  February  2g,  igi2. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  144 

CANNED  FOODS:  USE  OF  WATER,  BRINE,  SIRUP,  SAUCE,  AND. 
SIMILAR  SUBSTANCES   IN  THE   PREPARATION  THEREOF 

The  can  in  canned  food  products  serves  not  only  as  a  con- 
tainer but  also  as  an  index  of  the  quantity  of  food  therein.  It 
should  be  as  full  of  food  as  is  practicable  for  packing  and  pro- 
cessing without  injuring  the  quahty  or  appearance  of  the  con- 
tents. Some  food  products  may  be  canned  without  the  addi- 
tion of  any  other  substances  whatsoever  —  for  example,  tomatoes ._ 
The  addition  of  water  in  such  instances  is  deemed  adulteration. 
Other  foods  may  require  the  addition  of  water,  brine^  sugar, 
or  sirup,  either  to  combine  with  the  food  for  its  proper  prepara- 
tion or  for  the  purpose  of  sterilization  —  for  instance,  peas. 
In  this  case  the  can  should  be  packed  as  full  as  practicable  with 
the  peas  and  should  contain  only  sufficient  liquor  to  fill  the  inter- 
stices and  cover  the  product. 

Canned  foods,  therefore,  will  be  deemed  to  be  adulterated 
if  they  are  found  to  contain  water,  brine;  sirup,  sauce,  or  similar 


APPENDIX  B  525 

substances  in  excess  of  the  amount  necessary  for  their  proper 
preparation  and  sterilization. 

It  has  come  to  the  notice  of  the  department  that  pulp  pre- 
pared from  trimmings,  cores,  and  other  waste  material  is  some- 
times added  to  canned  tomatoes.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the 
board  that  pulp  is  not  a  normal  ingredient  of  canned  tomatoes, 
and  such  addition  is  therefore  adulteration.  It  is  the  further 
opinion  of  the  board  that  the  addition  of  tomato  juice  in  excess 
of  the  amount  present  in  the  tomatoes  used  is  adulteration  — 
that  is,  if  in  the  canning  of  a  lot  of  tomatoes  more  juice  be  added 
than  is  present  in  that  lot,  the  same  will  be  considered  an  adultera- 
tion. 

R.    E.    DOOLITTLE, 

A.  S.  Mitchell, 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 
Approved : 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  May  22, 1Q12.  , 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  146 
ON  THE   USE  OF   SACCHARIN  IN  FOODS 

There  appears  to  exist  a  misconception  of  the  position  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  as  to  the  use  of  saccharin  in  foods  as 
announced  in  Food  Inspection  Decision  No.  142.  That  decision 
prohibits  the  use  of  saccharin  in  foods.  The  law  defines  the 
term  "  drug  "  and  it  is  considered  that  saccharin  has  its  proper 
place  in  products  coming  within  this  definition. 

It  is  recognized  that  certain  specific  products  generally 
classified  as  foods,  and  sweetened  with  saccharin,  may  be  re- 
quired for  the  mitigation  or  cure  of  disease.  It  is  not  intended 
to  prohibit  the  manufacture  or  sale  of  such  products,  provided 


526  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

they  are  labeled  so  as  to  show  their  true  purpose  and  the  presence 
of  saccharin  is  plainly  declared  upon  the  principal  label.  This 
must  not  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  the  use  of  saccharin  in 
foods  prepared  for  ordinary  consumption  is  permissible  even  if 
declared  on  the  label. 

R.   E.    DOOLITTLE. 
F.   L.    DUNLAP, 

A.  S.  Mitchell, 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection. 
Approved :  ^ 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  June  22,  igi2. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION  153 

AMENDMENT  TO  REGULATION  9,  RELATING  TO  GUARANTIES 
BY  WHOLESALERS,  JOBBERS,  MANUFACTURERS,  AND  OTHER 
PARTIES  RESIDING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  TO  PROTECT 
DEALERS  FROM  PROSECUTION 

Regulation  9  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  enforcement 
of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  June  30,  1906  (34  Stat.,  768),  is 
hereby  amended,  effective  May  i,  19 15,  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

REGULATION  9.    GUARANTY 
(Section  9.) 

{a)  It  having  been  determined  that  the  legends  "  Guaranteed 
under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  June  30, 1906,"  and  "  Guaranteed 
by  (name  of  guarantor),  under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  June 
30,  1^6,"  borne  on  the  labels  or  packages  of  food  and  drugs, 
accompanied  by  sgrial  numbers  given  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, are  each  misleading  and  deceptive,  in  that  the  public 
is  induced  by  such  legends  and  serial  numbers  to  believe  that 


APPENDIX  B  527 

the  articles  to  which  they  relate  have  been  examined  and  approved 
by  the  Government  and  that  the  Government  guarantees  that 
they  comply  with  the  law,  the  use  of  either  legend,  or  any  similar 
legend,  on  labels  or  packages  should  be  discontinued.  Inasmuch 
as  the  acceptance  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  filing  of 
the  guaranties  of  manufacturers  and  dealers  and  the  giving  by 
him  of  serial  numbers  thereto  contribute  to  the  deceptive  char- 
acter of  legends  on  labels  and  packages,  no  guarantvjn_any  form 
shall  hereafter  be  filed  with  and  no  serial  number  shall  hereafter 
be  given  to  any  guaranty  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  AH 
guaranties  now  on  file  with  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall 
be  stricken  from  the  files,  and  the  serial  numbers  assigned  to 
such  guaranties  shall  be  canceled. 

(b)  The  use  on  the  label  or  package  of  any  food  or  drug  of  any 
serial  number  required  to  be  canceled  by  paragraph  (a)  of  this 
regulation  is  prohibited. 

(c)  Any  wholesaler,  manufacturer,  jobber,  or  other  party 
residing  in  the  United  States  may  furnish  to  any  dealer  to  whom 
he  sells  any  article  of  food  or  drug  a  guaranty  that  such  article 
is  not  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  the  Food 
and  Drugs  Act,  June  30,  1906,  as  amended. 

(d)  Each  guaranty  to  afford  protection  shall  be  signed  by, 
and  shall  contain  the  name  and  address  of,  the  wholesaler, 
manufacturer,  jobber,  dealer,  or  other  party  residing  in  the  United 
States  making  the  sale  of  the  article  or  articles  covered  by  it 
to  the  dealer,  and  shall  be  to  the  effect  that  such  article  or  articles 
are  not  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the  meaning  of  the 
Federal  Food  and  Drugs  Act. 

(e)  Each  guaranty  in  respect  to  any  article  or  articles  should  be 
incorporated  in  or  attached  to  the  bill  of  sale,  invoice,  bill  of 
lading,  or  other  schedule,  giving  the  names  and  quantities  of 
the  article  or  articles  sold,  and  should  not  appear  on  the  labels 
or  packages. 

(/")  No  dealer  in  food  or  drug  products  will  be  liable  to  pros- 


528  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ecution  if  he  can  establish  that  the  articles  were  sold  undei 
a  guaranty  given  in  compliance  with  this  regulation. 

W.  G.  McAdoo, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
D.  F.  Houston, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
William  C.  Redfield, 
Secretary  of  Commerce. 
Washington,  D.  C,  May  5,  191 4. 

FOOD   INSPECTION  DECISION   154 

REGULATION  OF  MARKING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  IN    ' 
PACKAGE   FORM 

Under  section  3  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  June  30,  1906 
(34  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  pages  768  to  772),  as  amended 
by  the  Act  of  March  3,  1913,  entitled  '*  An  Act  to  amend  section 
eight  of  an  Act  entitled  '  An  Act  for  preventing  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  or  transportation  of  adulterated  or  misbranded  or 
poisonous  or  deleterious  foods,  drugs,  medicines,  and  liquors, 
and  for  regulating  trafl&c  therein,  and  for  other  purposes,' 
approved  June  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred  and  six  "  (37  United 
States  Statutes  at  Large,  page  732),  Regulation  29  of  the  Rules 
and  Regulations  for  the  Enforcement' of  the  Food  and  Drugs 
Act  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

STATEMENT  OF  WEIGHT,  MEASURE,  OR  COUNT 
(Section  8,  paragraph  3,  under  "  Food,"  as  amended  by  act  of  March  3,1913.) 

(a)  Except  as  otherwise  provided  by  this  regulation,  the 
quantity  of  the  contents,  in  all  cases  of  food,  if  in  package  form, 
must  be  plainly  and  conspicuously  marked,  in  terms  of  weight, 
measure,  or  numerical  count,  on  the  outside  of  the  covering 
or  container  usually  delivered  to  consumers. 


APPENDIX  B  529 

(b)  The  quantity  of  the  contents  so  marked  shall  be  the  amount 
of  food  in  the  package. 

(c)  The  statement  of  the  quantity  of  the  contents  shall  be 
plain  and  conspicuous,  shall  not  be  a  part  of  or  obscured  by  any 
legend  or  design,  and  shall  be  so  placed  and  in  such  characters 
as  to  be  readily  seen  and  clearly  legible  when  the  size  of  the 
package  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  ordinarily 
examined  by  purchasers  or  consumers  are  taken  into  consid- 
eration. 

(d)  If  the  quantity  of  the  contents  be  stated  by  weight  or 
measure,  it  shall  be  marked  in  terms  of  the  largest  unit  con- 
tained in  the  package;  for  example,  if  the  package  contain  a 
pound,  or  pounds,  and  a  fraction  of  a  pound,  the  contents  shall 
be  expressed  in  terms  of  pounds  and  fractions  thereof;  or  of 
pounds  and  ounces,  and  not  merely  in  ounces. 

(e)  Statements  of  weight  shall  be  in  terms  of  avoirdupois 
pounds  and  ounces ;  statements  of  liquid  measure  shall  be  in 
terms  of  the  United  States  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches  and  its 
customary  subdivisions,  i.e.,  in  gallons,  quarts,  pints,  or  fluid 
ounces,  and  shall  express  the  volume  of  the  liquid  at  68°  F. 
(20°  C.) ;  and  statements  of  dry  measure  shall  be  in  terms  of 
the  United  States  standard  bushel  of  2,150.42  cubic  inches  and 
its  customary  subdivisions,  i.e.,  in  bushels,  half  bushels,  pecks, 
quarts,  pints,  or  half  pints:  Provided,  That,  by  like  method, 
such  statements  may  be  in  terms  of  metric  weight  or  measure. 

(/)  The  quantity  of  solids  shall  be  stated  in  terms  of  weight 
and  of  liquids  in  terms  of  measure,  except  that  in  case  of  an 
article  in  respect  to  which  there  exists  a  definite  trade  custom 
otherwise,  the  statement  may  be  in  terms  of  weight  or  measure 
in  accordance  with  such  custom.  The  quantity  of  viscous  or 
semi-solid  foods,  or  of  mixtures  of  solids  and  liquids,  may  be 
stated  either  by  weight  or  measure,  but  the  statement  shall  be 
definite  and  shall  indicate  whether  the  quantity  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  weight  or  measure  as,  for  example,  "  Weight  12  oz.," 


530  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

or  "  12  oz.  avoirdupois  ";  "  Volume  12  ounces,"  or  "  12  fluid 
ounces." 

(g)  The  quantity  of  the  contents  shall  be  stated  in  terms  of 
weight  or  measure  unless  the  package  be  marked  by  numerical 
count  and  such  numerical  count  gives  accurate  information  as 
to  the  quantity  of  the  food  in  the  package. 

(h)  The  quantity  of  the  contents  may  be  stated  in  terms  of 
minimum  weight,  minimum  measure,  or  minimum  count,  for 
example,  "  mininum  weight  16  oz.,"  "  minimum  volume  i 
gallon,"  or  "  not  less  than  4  oz."  ;  but  in  such  case  the  statement 
must  approximate  the  actual  quantity  and  there  shall  be  no 
tolerance  below  the  stated  minimum. 

(«)  The  following  tolerances  and  variations  from  the  quantity 
of  the  contents  marked  on  the  package  shall  be  allowed : 

(i)  Discrepancies  due  exclusively  to  errors  in  weighing, 
measuring,  or  counting  which  occur  in  packing  conducted  in 
compliance  with  good  commercial  practice. 

(2)  Discrepancies  due  exclusively  to  differences  in  the  capacity 
of  bottles  and  similar  containers  resulting  solely  from  unavoid- 
able difficulties  in  manufacturing  such  bottles  or  containers  so 
as  to  be  of  uniform  capacity :  Provided,  That  no  greater  tolerance 
shall  be  allowed  in  case  of  bottles  or  similar  containers  which, 
because  of  their  design,  cannot  be  made  of  approximate  uniform 
capacity  than  is  allowed  in  case  of  bottles  or  similar  containers 
which  can  be  manufactured  so  as  to  be  of  approximate  imiform 
capacity. 

(3)  Discrepancies  in  weight  or  measure,  due  exclusively  to 
differences  in  atmospheric  conditions  in  various  places,  and  which 
unavoidably  result  from  the  ordinary  and  customary  exposure 
of  the  packages  to  evaporation  or  to  the  absorption  erf  water. 

Discrepancies  under  classes  (i)  and  (2)  of  this  paragraph 
shall  be  as  often  above  as  below  the  marked  quantity.  The 
reasonableness  of  discrepancies  under  class  (3)  of  this  paragraph 
will  be  determined  on  the  facts  in  each  case. 


APPENDIX  B  531 

(J)  A  package  containing  two  avoirdupois  ounces  of  food  or 
less  is  "  small  "  and  shall  be  exempt  from  marking  in  terms  of 
weight. 

(k)  A  package  containing  one  fluid  ounce  of  food  or  less  is 
"  small  "  and  shall  be  exempt  from  marking  in  terms  of 
measure. 

(I)  When  a  package  is  not  required  by  paragraph  (g)  to  be 
marked  in  terms  of  either  weight  or  measure,  and  the  units  of 
food  therein  are  six  or  less,  it  shall,  for  the  purpose  of  this  reg- 
ulation, be  deemed  "  small  "  and  shall  be  exempt  from  marking 
in  terms  of  numerical  count. 

W.  G.  McAdoo, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

D.  F.  Houston, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
William  C.  Redfield, 

Secretary  of  Commerce. 
Washington,  D.  C,  May  11,  7974. 

FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION   155 

CHANGING  EFFECTIVE  DATE  OF  FOOD  INSPECTION  DECISION 
NO.  153,  WHICH  AMENDS  REGULATION  9,  RELATING  TO 
GUARANTIES  BY  WHOLESALERS,  JOBBERS,  MANUFAC- 
TURERS. AND  OTHER  PARTIES  RESIDING  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  TO  PROTECT  DEALERS  FROM  PROSECUTION 

The  effective  date  of  Food  Inspection  Decision  No.  153, 
issued  May  5,  1914,  is  hereby  postponed  until  May  i,  1916: 
Provided,  That  as  to  products  packed  and  labeled  prior  to  May  i, 
1916,  in  accordance  with  law  and  with  the  regulations  in  force 
prior  to  May  5,  1914,  it  shall  become  effective  November  i, 
1916 ;  And  provided  further,  That  compliance  with  the  terms 
of  Regulation  9  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  enforce- 


532  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ment  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  as  amended  by  Food  Inspection 
Decision  No.  153  will  be  permitted  at  any  time  after  the  date 
of  this  decision. 

C.  S.  Hamlin, 
Acting  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

D.  F.  Houston, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

William  C.  Redfield, 
Secretary  of  Commerce. 
Washington,  D.  C,  May,  2g,  igi4. 


APPENDIX   C 

METHODS   AND    STANDARDS    FOR    THE    PRODUC- 
TION  AND   DISTRIBUTION  OF   CERTIFIED   MILK 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Association  of  Medical  Milk  Commissions,  May 

I,    1912.) 

HYGIENE  OF  THE  DAIRY 

UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  AND  CONTROL  OF  THE  VETERINARIAN 

1.  Pastures  or  paddocks.  Pastures  or  paddocks  to  vi^hich  the  cows  have 
access  shall  be  free  from  marshes  or  stagnant  pools,  crossed  by  no  stream 
which  might  become  dangerously  contaminated,  at  sufficient  distances  from 
offensive  conditions  to  suffer  no  bad  effects  from  them,  and  shall  be  free  from 
plants  which  affect  the  milk  deleteriously. 

2.  Surroundings  of  buildings.  The  surroundings  of  all  buildings  shall  be 
kept  clean  and  free  from  accumulations  of  dirt,  rubbish,  decayed  vegetable 
or  animal  matter  or  animal  waste,  and  the  stable  yard  shall  be  well  drained. 

3.  Location  of  buildings.  Buildings  in  which  certified  milk  is  produced 
and  handled  shall  be  so  located  as  to  insure  proper  shelter  and  good  drainage, 
and  at  sufficient  distance  from  other  buildings,  dusty  roads,  cultivated  and 
dusty  fields,  and  all  other  possible  sources  of  contamination;  provided,  in 
the  case  of  unavoidable  proximity  to  dusty  roads  or  fields,  the  exposed  side 
shall  be  screened  with  cheesecloth. 

4.  Construction  of  stables.  The  stables  shall  be  constructed  so  as  to  facili- 
tate the  prompt  and  easy  removal  of  waste  products.  The  floors  and  plat- 
forms shall  be  made  of  cement  or  other  nonabsorbent  material  and  the  gutters 
of  cement  only.  The  floors  shall  be  properly  graded  and  drained,  and  the 
manure  gutters  shall  be  from  6  to  8  inches  deep  and  so  placed  in  relation  to 
the  platform  that  all  manure  will  drop  into  them. 

5.  The  inside  surface  of  the  walls  and  all  interior  construction  shall  be 
smooth,  with  tight  joints,  and  shall  be  capable  of  shedding  water.  The 
ceiling  shall  be  of  smooth  material  and  dust  tight.  All  horizontal  and  slant- 
ing surfaces  which  might  harbor  dust  shall  be  avoided. 

533 


534  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

6.  Drinking  and  feed  troughs.  Drinking  troughs  or  basins  shall  be 
drained  and  cleaned  each  day,  and  feed  troughs  and  mixing  floors  shall  be 
kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition. 

7.  Stanchions.  Stanchions,  when  used,  shall  be  constructed  of  iron 
pipes  or  hard  wood,  and  throat  latches  shall  be  provided  to  prevent  the  cows 
from  lying  down  between  the  time  of  cleaning  and  the  time  of  milking. 

8.  Ventilation.  The  cow  stables  shall  be  provided  with  adequate  ven- 
tilation either  by  means  of  some  approved  artificial  device,  or  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  cheesecloth  for  glass  in  the  windows,  each  cow  to  be  provided 
with  a  minimum  of  600  cubic  feet  of  air  space. 

9.  Windows.  A  sufficient  number  of  windows  shall  be  installed  and  so 
distributed  as  to  provide  satisfactory  light  and  a  maximum  of  sunshine,  2 
feet  square  of  window  area  to  each  600  cubic  feet  of  air  space  to  represent  the 
minimum.  The  coverings  of  such  windows  shall  be  kept  free  from  dust  and 
dirt. 

10.  Exclusion  of  flies,  etc.  All  necessary  measures  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  flies  and  other  insects  and  rats  and  other  vermin  into 
all  the  buildings. 

11.  Exclusion  of  animals  from  the  herd.  No  horses,  hogs,  dogs,  or  other 
animals  or  fowls  shall  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the  certified  herd, 
either  in  the  stables  or  elsewhere. 

12.  Bedding.  No  dusty  or  moldy  hay  or  straw,  bedding  from  horse  stalls, 
or  other  unclean  materials  shall  be  used  for  bedding  the  cows.  Only  bedding 
which  is  clean,  dry,  and  absorbent  may  be  used,  preferably  shavings  or 
straw. 

13.  Cleaning  stable  and  disposal  of  manure.  Soiled  bedding  and  manure 
shall  be  removed  at  least  twice  daily,  and  the  floors  shall  be  swept  and  kept 
free  from  refuse.  Such  cleaning  shall  be  done  at  least  one  hour  before  the 
milking  time.  Manure,  when  removed,  shall  be  drawn  to  the  field  or  tem- 
porarily stored  in  containers  so  screened  as  to  exclude  flies.  Manure  shall 
not  be  even  temporarily  stored  within  300  feet  of  the  barn  or  dairy  building. 

14.  Cleaning  of  cows.  Each  cow  in  the  herd  shall  be  groomed  daily,  and 
no  manure,  mud,  or  filth  shall  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  her  during  milking ; 
for  cleaning,  a  vacuum  apparatus  is  recommended. 

15.  Clipping.  Long  hairs  shall  be  clipped  from  the  udder  and  flanks  of 
the  cow  and  from  the  tail  above  the  brush.  The  hair  on  the  tail  shall  be  cut 
so  that.the  brush  may  be  well  above  the  ground. 

16.  Cleaning  of  udders.  The  udders  and  teats  of  the  cow  shall  be  cleaned 
before  milking ;  they  shall  be  washed  with  a  cloth  and  water,  and  dry  wiped 
with  another  clean  sterilized  cloth  —  a  separate  cloth  for  drying  each  cow. 

17.  Feeding.     All  foodstuffs  shall  be  kept  in  an  apartment  separate  from 


APPENDIX  C  535 

and  not  directly  communicating  with  the  cow  bam.  They  shall  be  brought 
into  the  barn  only  immediately  before  the  feeding  hour,  which  shall  follow 
the  milking. 

i8.  Only  those  foods  shall  be  used  which  consist  of  fresh,  palatable,  or  nu- 
tritious materials,  such  as  will  not  injure  the  health  of  the  cows  or  unfavor- 
ably affect  the  taste  or  character  of  the  milk.  Any  dirty  or  moldy  food  or 
food  in  a  state  of  decomposition  or  putrefaction  shall  not  be  given. 

19.  A  well-balanced  ration  shall  be  used,  and  all  changes  of  food  shall  be 
made  slowly.  The  first  few  feedings  of  grass,  alfalfa,  ensilage,  green  com,  or 
other  green  feeds  shall  be  given  in  small  rations  and  increased  gradually  to 
full  ration. 

20.  Exercise.  All  dairy  cows  shall  be  turned  out  for  exercise  at  least  2 
hours  in  each  24  in  suitable  weather.  Exercise  yards  shall  be  kept  free  from 
manure  and  other  fifth. 

21.  Washing  of  hands.  Conveniently  located  facilites  shall  be  provided 
for  the  milkers  to  wash  in  before  and  during  milking. 

22.  The  hands  of  the  milkers  shall  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap,  water, 
and  brush  and  carefully  dried  on  a  clean  towel  immediately  before  milk- 
ing. The  hands  of  the  milkers  shall  be  rinsed  with  clean  water  and  carefully 
dried  before  milking  each  cow.  The  practice  of  moistening  the  hands  with 
milk  is  forbidden. 

23.  Milking  clothes.  Clean  overalls,  jumper,  and  cap  shall  be  worn  during 
milking.  They  shall  be  washed  or  sterilized  each  day  and  used  for  no  other 
purpose,  and  when  not  in  use  they  shall  be  kept  in  a  clean  place,  protected 
from  dust  and  dirt. 

24.  Things  to  be  avoided  by  milkers.  While  engaged  about  the  dairy  or  in 
handling  the  milk  employees  shall  not  use  tobacco  nor  intoxicating  hquors. 
They  shall  keep  their  fingers  away  from  their  nose  and  mouth,  and  no  milker 
shall  permit  his  hands,  fingers,  lips,  or  tongue  to  come  in  contact  with  milk 
intended  for  sale. 

25.  During  milking  the  milkers  shall  be  careful  not  to  touch  anything  but 
the  clean  top  of  the  milking  stool,  the  milk  pail,  and  the  cow's  teats. 

26.  Milkers  are  forbidden  to  spit  upon  the  walls  or  floors  of  stables,  or 
upon  the  walls  or  floors  of  milk  houses,  or  into  the  water  used  for  cooling  the 
milk  or  washing  the  utensils.  , 

27.  Fore  milk.  The  first  streams  from  each  teat  shall  be  rejected,  as  this 
fore  milk  contains  large  numbers  of  bacteria.  Such  milk  shall  be  collected 
into  a  separate  vessel  and  not  milked  onto  the  floors  or  into  the  gutters.  The 
milking  shall  be  done  rapidly  and  quietly,  and  the  cows  shall  be  treated  kindly. 

28.  Milk  and  calving  period.  Milk  from  all  cows  shall  be  excluded  for  a 
period  of  45  days  before  and  7  days  after  parturition. 


536  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

29.  Bloody  and  stringy  milk.  If  milk  from  any  cow  is  bloody  and  stringy 
or  of  unnatural  appearance,  the  milk  from  that  cow  shall  be  rejected  and  the 
cow  isolated  from  the  herd  until  the  cause  of  such  abnormal  appearance  has 
been  determined  and  removed,  special  attention  being  given  in  the  meantime 
to  the  feeding  or  to  possible  injuries.  If  dirt  gets  into  the  pail,  the  milk  shall 
be  discarded  and  the  pail  washed  before  it  is  used. 

30.  Make-up  of  herd.  No  cows  except  those  receiving  the  same  super- 
vision and  care  as  the  certified  herd  shall  be  kept  in  the  same  barn  or  brought 
in  contact  with  them. 

31.  Employees  other  than  milkers.  The  requirements  for  milkers,  relative 
to  garments  and  cleaning  of  hands,  shall  apply  to  all  other  persons  handling 
the  milk,  and  children  unattended  by  adults  shall  not  be  allowed  in  the  dairy 
nor  in  the  stable  during  milking. 

32.  Straining  and  strainers.  Promptly  after  the  milk  is  drawn  it  shall  be 
removed  from  the  stable  to  a  clean  room  and  then  emptied  from  the  milk  pail 
to  the  can,  being  strained  through  strainers  made  of  a  double  layer  of  finely 
meshed  cheesecloth  or  absorbent  cotton  thoroughly  sterilized.  Several 
strainers  shall  be  provided  for  each  milking  in  order  that  they  may  be  fre- 
quently changed. 

33.  Dairy  building.  A  dairy  building  shall  be  provided  which  shall  be 
located  at  a  distance  from  the  stable  and  dwelling  prescribed  by  the  local 
commission,  and  there  shall  be  no  hogpen,  privy,  or  manure  pile  at  a  higher 
level  or  within  300  feet  of  it. 

34.  The  dairy  building  shall  be  kept  clean  and  shall  not  be  used  for  pur- 
poses other  than  the  handling  and  storing  of  milk  and  milk  utensils.  It  shall 
be  provided  with  light  and  ventilation,  and  the  floors  shall  be  graded  and 
water-tight. 

35.  The  dairy  building  shall  be  well  lighted  and  screened  and  drained 
through  well-trapped  pipes.  No  animals  shall  be  allowed  therein.  No  part 
of  the  dairy  building  shall  be  used  for  dwelling  or  lodging  purposes,  and  the 
bottling  room  shall  be  used  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  provide  a  place  for 
clean  milk  utensils  and  for  handling  the  milk.  During  bottling  this  room 
shall  be  entered  only  by  persons  employed  therein.  The  bottling  room  shall 
be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  free  from  odors. 

36.  Temperature  of  milk.  Proper  cooling  to  reduce  the  temperature  to 
45°  F.  shall  be  used,  and  aerators  shall  be  so  situated  that  they  can  be  pro- 
tected ftom  flies,  dust,  and  odors.  The  milk  shall  be  cooled  immediately 
after  being  milked,  and  maintained  at  a  temperature  between  35°  and  45°  F. 
until  delivered  to  the  consumer. 

37.  Sealing  of  bottles.  Milk,  after  being  cooled  and  bottled,  shall  be 
immediately  sealed  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  commission,  but  such 


APPENDIX  C  537 

seal  shall  include  a  sterile  hood  which  completely  covers  the  lip  of  the 
bottle. 

38.  Cleaning  and  sterilizing  of  bottles.  The  dairy  building  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  approved  apparatus  for  the  cleansing  and  sterilizing  of  all  bottles 
and  utensils  used  in  milk  production.  All  bottles  and  utensils  shall  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  hot  water  and  sal  soda,  or  equally  pure  agent,  rinsed 
until  the  cleaning  water  is  thoroughly  removed,  then  exposed  to  live  steam 
or  boiling  water  at  least  20  minutes,  and  then  kept  inverted  until  used,  in  a 
place  free  from  dust  and  other  contaminating  materials. 

39.  Utensils.  All  utensils  shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  easily  cleaned. 
The  milk  pail  should  preferably  have  an  elliptical  opening  5  by  7  inches  in 
diameter.  The  cover  of  this  pail  should  be  so  convex  as  to  make  the  entire 
interior  of  the  pail  visible  and  accessible  for  cleaning.  The  pail  shall  be  made 
of  heavy  seamless  tin,  and  with  seams  which  are  flushed  and  made  smooth  by 
solder.  Wooden  pails,  galvanized-iron  pails,  or  pails  made  of  rough,  porous 
materials,  are  forbidden.  All  utensils  used  in  milking  shall  be  kept  in  good 
repair. 

40.  Water  supply.  The  entire  water  supply  shall  be  absolutely  free  from 
contamination,  and  shall  be  sufficient  for  all  dairy  purposes.  It  shall  be  pro- 
tected against  flood  or  surface  drainage,  and  shall  be  conveniently  situated  in 
relation  to  the  milk  house. 

4.1 .  Privies,  etc. ,  in  relation  to  water  supply.  Privies,  pigpens,  manure  piles, 
and  all  other  possible  sources  of  contamination  shall  be  so  situated  on  the 
farm  as  to  render  impossible  the  contamination  of  the  water  supply,  and  shall 
be  so  protected  by  use  of  screens  and  other  measures  as  to  prevent  their 
becoming  breeding  grounds  for  flies. 

42.  Toilet  rooms.  Toilet  facilities  for  the  milkers  shall  be  provided  and 
located  outside  of  the  stable  or  milk  house.  These  toilets  shall  be  properly 
screened,  shall  be  kept  clean,  and  shall  be  accessible  to  wash  basins,  water, 
nail  brush,  soap,  and  towels,  and  the  milkers  shall  be  required  to  wash  and  dry 
their  hands  immediately  after  leaving  the  toilet  room. 

TRANSPORTATION 

43.  In  transit  the  milk  packages  shall  be  kept  free  from  dust  and  dirt. 
The  wagon,  trays,  and  crates  shall  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  No  bottles 
shall  be  collected  from  houses  in  which  communicable  diseases  prevail,  unless 
a  separate  wagon  is  used  and  under  conditions  prescribed  by  the  depart- 
ment of  health  and  the  medical  milk  commission. 

44.  All  certified  milk  shall  reach  the  consumer  within  30  hours  after 
milking. 


538  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

VETERINARY  SUPERVISION  OF  THE  HERD 

45 .  Tuberculin  test.  The  herd  shall  be  free  from  tuberculosis,  as  shown  by 
the  proper  application  of  the  tuberculin  test.  The  test  shall  be  applied  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  United  States  Government, 
and  all  reactors  shall  be  removed  immediately  from  the  farm.^ 

46.  No  new  animals  shall  be  admitted  to  the  herd  without  first  having 
passed  a  satisfactory  tuberculin  test,  made  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and 
regulations  mentioned ;  the  tuberculin  to  be  obtained  and  applied  only  by 
the  official  veterinarian  of  the  commission. 

47.  Immediately  following  the  application  of  the  tuberculin  test  to  a  herd 
for  the  purpose  of  eliminating  tuberculous  cattle,  the  cow  stable  and  exercis- 
ing yards  shall  be  disinfected  by  the  veterinary  inspector  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  United  States  Government. 

48.  A  second  tuberculin  test  shall  follow  each  primary  test  after  an  inter- 
val of  six  months,  and  shall  be  applied  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations mentioned.  Thereafter,  tuberculin  tests  shall  be  reapplied  annually, 
but  it  is  recommended  that  the  retests  be  applied  semiannually. 

49.  Identification  of  cows.  Each  dairy  cow  in  each  of  the  certified  herds 
shall  be  labelled  or  tagged  with  a  number  or  mark  which  will  permanently 
identify  her. 

50.  Herd-book  record.  Each  cow  in  the  herd  shall  be  registered  in  a  herd 
book,  which  register  shall  be  accurately  kept  so  that  her  entrance  and  de- 
parture from  the  herd  and  her  tuberculin  testing  can  be  identified. 

51.  A  copy  of  this  herd-book  record  shall  be  kept  in  the  hands  of  the 
veterinarian  of  the  medical  milk  commission  under  which  the  dairy  farm  is 
operating,  and  the  veterinarian  shall  be  made  responsible  for  the  accuracy 
of  this  record. 

52.  Dates  of  tuberculin  tests.  The  dates  of  the  annual  tuberculin  tests 
shall  be  definitely  arranged  by  the  medical  milk  commission,  and  all  of  the 
results  of  such  tests  shall  be  recorded  by  the  veterinarian  and  regularly  re- 
ported to  the  secretary  of  the  medical  milk  commission  issuing  the  certificate. 

53.  The  results  of  all  tuberculin  tests  shall  be  kept  on  file  by  each  medical 
milk  commission,  and  a  copy  of  all  such  tests  shall  be  made  available  to  the 
American  Association  of  Medical  Milk  Commissions  for  statistical  purposes. 

54.  The  proper  designated  officers  of  the  American  Association  of  Medical 
Milk  Commissions  should  receive  copies  of  reports  of  all  of  the  annual,  semi- 
annual, Jtnd  other  official  tuberculin  tests  which  are  made  and  keep  copies  of 
the  same  on  file  and  compile  them  annually  for  the  use  of  the  association. 

'  See  Circular  of  Instructions  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  for  mjiking 
tuberculin  tests  and  (or  disinfection  of  premises. 


APPENDIX  C  539 

55-  Disposition  of  cows  sick  with  diseases  other  than  tuberculosis.  Cows 
having  rheumatism,  leucorrhea,  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  severe  diarrhea, 
or  disease  of  the  udder,  or  cows  that  from  any  other  cause  may  be  a  menace  to 
the  herd  shall  be  removed  from  the  herd  and  placed  in  a  building  separate 
from  that  which  may  be  used  for  the  isolation  of  cows  with  tuberculosis,  un- 
less such  building  has  been  properly  disinfected  since  it  was  last  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  milk  from  such  cows  shall  not  be  used  nor  shall  the  cows  be 
restored  to  the  herd  until  permission  has  been  given  by  the  veterinary  inspec- 
tor after  a  careful  physical  examination. 

56.  Notification  of  veterinary  inspector.  In  the  event  of  the  occurrence  of 
any  of  the  diseases  just  described  between  the  visits  of  the  veterinary  inspec- 
tor, or  if  at  any  time  a  number  of  cows  become  sick  at  one  time  in  such  a  way 
as  to  suggest  the  outbreak  of  a  contagious  disease  or  poisoning,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  dairyman  to  withdraw  such  sickened  cattle  from  the  herd,  to 
destroy  their  milk,  and  to  notify  the  veterinary  inspector  by  telegraph  or 
telephone  immediately. 

57.  Emaciated  cows.  Cows  that  are  emaciated  from  chronic  diseases  or 
from  any  cause  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  veterinary  inspector  may  endanger 
the  quality  of  the  milk  shall  be  removed  from  the  herd. 

BACTERIOLOGICAL  STANDARDS 

58.  Bacterial  counts.  Certified  milk  shall  contain  less  than  10,000  bac- 
teria per  cubic  centimeter  when  delivered.  In  case  a  count  exceeding  10,000 
bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  is  found,  daily  counts  shall  be  made,  and  if  nor- 
mal counts  are  not  restored  within  ro  days  the  certificate  shall  be  suspended. 

59.  Bacterial  counts  shall  be  made  at  least  once  a  week. 

60.  Collection  of  samples.  The  samples  to  be  examined  shall  be  obtained 
from  milk  as  ofifered  for  sale  and  shall  be  taken  by  a  representative  of  the  milk 
commission.  The  samples  shall  be  received  in  the  original  packages,  in  prop- 
erly iced  containers,  and  they  shall  be  so  kept  until  examined,  so  as  to  limit 
as  far  as  possible  changes  in  their  bacterial  content. 

61.  For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  temperature,  a  separate  original 
package  shall  be  used,  and  the  temperature  taken  at  the  time  of  collecting  the 
sample,  using  for  the  purpose  a  standardized  thermometer  graduated  in  the 
centigrade  scale. 

6  2 .  Interval  between  milking  and  plating.  The  examinations  shall  be  made 
as  soon  after  collection  of  the  samples  as  possible,  and  in  no  case  shall  the 
interval  between  milking  and  plating  the  samples  be  longer  than  40  hours. 

63.  Plating.  The  packages  shall  be  opened  with  aseptic  precautions  after 
the  milk  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  by  vigorously  reversing  and  shaking  the 
container  25  times. 


540  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

64.  Two  plates  at  least  shall  be  made  for  each  sample  of  milk,  and  there 
shall  also  be  made  a  control  of  each  lot  of  medium  and  apparatus  used  at  each 
testing.    The  plates  shall  be  grown  at  37°  C.  for  48  hours. 

65.  In  making  the  plates  there  shall  be  used  agar-agar  media  containing 
1.5  per  cent  agar  and  giving  a  reaction  of  i.o  to  phenolphthalein.' 

66.  Samples  of  milk  for  plating  shall  be  diluted  in  the  proportion  of  i  part 
of  milk  to  99  parts  of  sterile  water ;  shake  25  times  and  plate  i  c.  c.  of  the 
dilution.^ 

67.  Determination  of  taste  and  odor  of  milk.  After  the  plates  have  been 
prepared  and  placed  in  the  incubator,  the  taste  and  odor  of  the  milk  shall  be 
determined  after  warming  the  milk  to  100°  F.'^ 

68.  Counts.  The  total  number  of  colonies  on  each  plate  should  be 
counted,  and  the  results  expressed  in  multiples  of  the  dilution  factor.  Colo- 
nies too  small  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  or  with  slight  magnification  shall 
not  be  considered  in  the  count. 

69.  Records  of  bacteriologic  tests.  The  results  of  all  bacterial  tests  shall  be 
kept  on  file  by  the  secretary  of  each  commission,  copies  of  which  should  be 
made  available  annually  for  the  use  of  the  American  Association  of  Medical 
Milk  Commissions. 

CHEMICAL  STANDARDS  AND  METHODS 

The  methods  that  must  be  followed  in  carrying  out  the  chemical  investi- 
gations essential  to  the  protection  of  certified  milk  are  so  complicated  that  in 
order  to  keep  the  fees  of  the  chemist  at  a  reasonable  figure,  there  must  be 
eliminated  from  the  examination  those  procedures  which,  whilst  they  might 
be  helpful  and  interesting,  are  in  no  sense  necessary. 

For  this  reason  the  determination  of  the  water,  the  total  solids,  and  the 
milk  sugar  i§  not  required  as  a  part  of  the  routine  examination. 

70.  The  chemical  analyses  shall  be  made  by  a  competent  chemist  desig- 
nated by  the  medical  milk  commission. 

71.  Method  of  obtaining  samples.  The  samples  to  be  examined  by  the 
chemist  shall  have  been  examined  previously  by  the  bacteriologist  desig- 
nated by  the  medical  milk  commission  as  to  temperature,  odor,  taste,  and 
bacterial  content. 

72.  Fat  standards.  The  fat  standard  for  certified  milk  shall  be  4  per  cent, 
with  a'permissible  range  of  variation  of  from  3.5  to  4.5  per  cent. 

*  Directions  for  laboratory  work,  included  in  the  original  report,  are  here  omitted. 

*  Should  it  be  deemed  desirable  and  necessary  to  conduct  tests  for  sediment,  the 
presence  of  special  bacteria,  or  the  number  of  leucocytes,  the  methods  adopted  by  the 
committee  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association  should  be  followed. 


APPENDIX  C  541 

73.  The  fat  standard  for  certified  cream  shall  be  not  less  than  18  per 
cent. 

74.  If  it  is  desired  to  sell  higher  fat-percentage  milks  or  creams  as  certified 
milks  or  creams,  the  range  of  variation  for  such  milks  shall  be  0.5  per  cent  on 
either  side  of  the  advertised  percentage  and  the  range  of  variations  for  such 
creams  shall  be  2  per  cent  on  either  side  of  the  advertised  percentage. 

75.  The  fat  content  of  certified  milks  and  creams  shall  be  determined  at 
least  once  each  month. 

76.  The  methods  recommended  for  this  purpose  are  the  Babcock,'  the 
Leffmann-Beam/  and  the  Gerber.* 

77.  Before  condemning  samples  of  milk  which  have  fallen  outside  the 
limits  allowed,  the  chemist  shall  have  determined,  by  control  ether  extrac- 
tions, that  his  apparatus  and  his  technique  are  reliable. 

78.  Protein  standard.  The  protein  standard  for  certified  milk  shall  be 
3.50  per  cent,  with  a  permissible  range  of  variation  of  from  3  to  4  per  cent. 

79.  The  protein  standard  for  certified  cream  shall  correspond  to  the  pro- 
tein standard  for  certified  milk. 

80.  The  protein  content  shall  be  determined  only  when  any  special  con- 
sideration seems  to  the  medical  milk  commission  to  make  it  desirable. 

81.  It  shall  be  determined  by  the  Kjeldahl  method,  using  the  Gunning  or 
some  other  reliable  modification,  and  employing  the  factor  6.25  in  reckoning 
the  protein  from  the  nitrogen. 

82.  Coloring  matter  and  preservatives.  All  certified  milks  and  creams  shall 
be  free  from  adulteration,  and  coloring  matter  and  preservatives  shall  not  be 
added  thereto. 

83.  Tests  for  the  detection  of  added  coloring  matter  shall  be  applied 
whenever  the  color  of  the  milk  or  cream  is  such  as  to  arouse  suspicion. 

84.  Tests  for  the  detection  of  formaldehyde,  borax,  and  boracic  acid  shall 
be  applied  at  least  once  each  month.  Occasionally  application  of  tests  for 
the  detection  of  salicylic  acid,  benzoic  acid,  and  the  benzoates  is  also  recom- 
mended. 

85.  Detection  of  heated  milk.  Certified  milk  or  cream  shall  not  be  sub- 
jected to  heat  unless  specially  directed  by  the  commission  to  meet  emer- 
gencies. 

86.  Tests -to  determine  whether  such  milks  and  creams  have  been  sub- 
jected to  heat  shall  be  applied  at  least  once  each  month. 

87.  Specific  gravity.  The  specific  gravity  of  certified  milk  shall  range 
from  1.029  to  1.034. 

88.  The  specific  gravity  shall  be  determined  at  least  each  month. 

'  Directions  for  laboratory  work,  included  in  the  original  report,  are  here  omitted. 


542  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

METHODS  AND   REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  MEDICAL  EXAMINATION  OF 
EMPLOYEES.    THEIR  HEALTH  AND  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

89.  A  medical  officer,  known  as  the  attending  dairy  physician,  shall  be 
selected  by  the  commission,  who  should  reside  near  the  dairy  producing  certi- 
fied milk.  He  shall  be  a  physician  in  good  standing  and  authorized  by  law 
to  practice  medicine ;  he  shall  be  responsible  to  the  commission  and  subject  to 
its  direction.  In  case  more  than  one  dairy  is  under  the  control  of  the  com- 
mission and  they  are  in  different  localities,  a  separate  physician  should  be 
designated  for  employment  for  the  supervision  of  each  dairy. 

90.  Before  any  person  shall  come  on  the  premises  to  live  and  remain  as  an 
employee,  such  person,  before  being  engaged  in  milking  or  the  handling  of 
milk,  shall  be  subjected  to  a  complete  physical  examination  by  the  attending 
physician.  No  person  shall  be  employed  who  has  not  been  vaccinated  re- 
cently or  who  upon  examination  is  found  to  have  a  sore  throat,  or  to  be  suffer- 
ing from  any  form  of  tuberculosis,  venereal  disease,  conjunctivitis,  diarrhea, 
dysentery,  or  who  has  recently  had  typhoid  fever  or  is  proved  to  be  a  typhoid 
carrier,  or  who  has  any  inflammatory  disease  of  the  respiratory  tract,  or  any 
suppurative  process  or  infectious  skin  eruption,  or  any  disease  of  an  infectious 
or  contagious  nature,  or  who  has  recently  been  associated  with  children  sick 
with  contagious  disease. 

91.  In  addition  to  ordinary  habits  of  personal  cleanliness  all  milkers  shall 
have  well-trimmed  hair,  wear  close-fitting  caps,  and  have  clean-shaven  faces. 

92.  When  the  milkers  live  upon  the  premises  their  domitories  shall  be  con- 
structed and  operated  according  to  plans  approved  by  the  commission.  A 
separate  bed  shall  be  provided  for  each  milker  and  each  bed  shall  be  kept  sup- 
plied with  clean  bedclothes.  Proper  bathing  facilities  shall  be  provided  for 
all  emploj^eeson  the  dairy  premises,  preferably  a  shower  bath,  and  frequent 
bathing  shall  be  enjoined. 

93.  In  case  the  employees  live  on  the  dairy  premises  a  suitable  building 
shall  be  provided  to  be  used  for  the  isolation  and  quarantine  of  persons  under 
suspicion  of  having  a  contagious  disease. 

The  following  plan  of  construction  is  recommended : 

The  quarantine  building  and  hospital  should  be  one  story  high  and  contain 
at  least  two  rooms,  each  with  a  capacity  of  about  6,000  cubic  feet  and  con- 
taining not  more  than  three  beds  each,  the  rooms  to  be  separated  by  a  closed 
partition.  The  doors  opening  into  the  rooms  should  be  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  buildmg  and  provided  with  locks.  The  windows  should  be  barred  and  the 
sash  should  be  at  least  5  feet  from  the  ground  and  constructed  for  proper 
ventilation.  The  walls  should  be  of  a  material  which  will  allow  proper  dis- 
infection. The  floor  should  be  of  painted  or  washable  wood,  preferably  of 
concrete,  and  so  constructed  that  the  floor  ma}'  be  flushed  and  properly  dis- 


APPENDIX   C  543 

infected.     Proper  heating,  lighting,  and  ventilating  facilities  should  be  pro- 
vided. 

94.  In  the  event  of  any  illness  of  a  suspicious  nature  the  attending  physi- 
cian shall  immediately  quarantine  the  suspect,  notify  the  health  authorities 
and  the  secretary  of  the  commission,  and  examine  each  member  of  the  dairy 
force,  and  in  every  inflammatory  affection  of  the  nose  or  throat  occurring 
among  the  employees  of  the  dairy,  in  addition  to  carrying  out  the  above- 
mentioned  program,  the  attending  physician  shall  take  a  culture  and  have  it 
examined  at  once  by  a  competent  bacteriologist  approved  by  the  commis- 
sion. Pending  such  examination,  the  affected  employee  or  employees  shall 
be  quarantined. 

95.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary,  on  receiving  notice  of  any  sus- 
picious or  contagious  disease  at  the  dairy,  at  once  to  notify  the  committee 
having  in  charge  the  medical  supervision  of  employees  of  the  dairy  farm  upon 
which  such  disease  has  developed.  On  receipt  of  the  notice  this  committee 
shall  assume  charge  of  the  matter,  and  shall  have  power  to  act  for  the  com- 
mission as  its  judgment  dictates.  As  soon  as  possible  thereafter,  the  com- 
mittee shall  notify  the  commission,  through  its  secretary,  that  a  special 
meeting  may  be  called  for  ultimate  consideration  and  action. 

96.  When  a  case  of  contagious  disease  is  found  among  the  employees  of  a 
dairy  producing  certified  milk  under  the  control  of  a  fnedical  milk  commis- 
sion, such  employee  shall  be  at  once  quarantined  and  as  soon  as  possible 
removed  from  the  plant,  and  the  premises  fumigated. 

When  a  case  of  contagion  is  found  on  a  certified  dairy  it  is  advised  that  a 
printed  notice  of  the  facts  shall  be  sent  to  every  householder  using  the  milk, 
giving  in  detail  the  precautions  taken  by  the  dairyman  under  the  direction  of 
the  commission,  and  it  is  further  advised  that  all  milk  produce<l  at  such  dair>' 
shall  be  heated  at  145°  F.  for  40  minutes,  or  155°  F.  for  30  minutes,  or  167°  F. 
for  20  minutes,  and  immediately  cooled  to  50°  F.  These  facts  should  also  be 
part  of  the  notice,  and  such  heating  of  the  milk  should  be  continued  during 
the  accepted  period  of  incubation  for  such  contagious  disease. 

The  following  method  of  fumigation  is  recommended : 

After  all  windows  and  doors  are  closed  and  the  cracks  sealed  by  strips  of 
paper  applied  with  flour  paste,  and  the  various  articles  in  the  room  so  hung  or 
placed  as  to  be  exposed  on  all  sides,  preparations  should  be  made  to  generate 
formaldehyde  gas  by  the  use  of  20  ounces  of  formaldehyde  and  10  ounces  of 
permanganate  of  potash  for  every  i  ,000  cubic  feet  of  space  to  be  disinfected. 

For  mixing  the  formaldehyde  and  potassium  permanganate  a  large  gal- 
vanized-iron  pail  or  cylinder  holding  at  least  20  quarts  and  having  a  flared 
top  should  be  used  for  mixing  therein  20  ounces  of  formaldehyde  and  10 
ounces  of  permanganate.  A  cylinder  at  least  5  feet  high  is  suggested.  The 
containers  should  be  placed  about  in  the  rooms  and  the  necessary  quantity  of 


544  FOOD  PRODUCTS 

permanganate  weighed  and  placed  in  them.  The  formaldehyde  solution  for 
each  pail  should  then  be  measured  into  a  wide-mouthed  cup  and  placed  by  the 
pail  in  which  it  is  to  be  used. 

Although  the  reaction  takes  place  quickly,  by  making  preparations  as 
advised  all  of  the  pails  can  be  "set  off  "  promptly  by  one  person,  since  there  is 
nothing  to  do  but  pour  the  formaldehyde  solution  over  the  permanganate. 
The  rooms  should  be  kept  closed  for  four  hours.  As  there  is  a  slight  danger 
of  fire,  the  reaction  should  be  watched  through  a  window  or  the  pails  placed 
on  a  noninfiammable  surface. 

97.  Following  a  weekly  medical  inspection  of  the  employees,  a  monthly 
report  shall  be  submitted  to  the  secretary  of  the  medical  milk  commission,  on 
the  same  recurring  date  by  the  examining  visiting  physician. 

The  following  schedule,  filled  out  in  writing  and  signed  by  himself,  is 
recommended  as  a  suitable  form  for  the  attending  physician's  report  • 

This  is  to  certify  that,  on  the  dates  below  indicated,  official  visits  were 

made  to  the dairy,  owned  and  conducted  by of (indicating 

town  and  State) ,  where  careful  inspections  of  the  dairy  employees  were  made. 

(o)  Number  and  dates  of  visits  since  last  report.     . 

(b)  Nimiber  of  men  employed  on  the  plant.     . 

(c)  Has  a  recent  epidemic  of  contagion  occurred  near  the  dairy,  and  what 
was  its  nature  and  extent  ?     . 

(d)  Have  any  cases  of  contagious  or  infectious  disease  occurred  among  the 
men  since  the  last  report  ?     — — . 

(e)  Disposition  of  such  cases.     . 

(/)  What  individual  sickness  has  occurred  among  the  men  since  the  last 
report  ?    . 

(g)  Disposition  of  such  cases.     . 

(h)  Number  of  employees  now  quarantined  for  sickness.     . 

(x)  Describe  the  personal  hygiene  of  the  men  employed  for  milking  when 
prepared  for  and  during  the  process  of  milking.     . 

(.7)  What  facilities  are  provided  for  sickness  in  employees  ?     . 

(k)  General  hygienic  condition  of  the  dormitories  or  houses  of  the  em- 
ployees.      . 

(/)  Suggestions  for  improvement.     . 

,  (w)  What  is  the  hygienic  condition  of  the  employees  and  their  surround- 
ings ?    . 

(w)  How  many  employees  were  examined  at  each  of  the  foregoing  visits  ? 


Attending  Physician. 


APPENDIX  D 

FEDERAL   MEAT  INSPECTION 

THE  MEAT-INSPECTION  LAW 

[Extract  from  an  act  of  Congress  entitled  "  An  act  making 
appropriations  for  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred  and  seven," 
approved  June  30,  1906  (34  Stat.,  674).] 

That  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  use  in  interstate  or  foreign  com- 
merce, as  hereinafter  provided,  of  meat  and  meat  food  products  which  are 
unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  at  his  discretion,  may  cause  to  be  made,  by  inspec- 
tors appointed  for  that  purpose,  an  examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  before  they  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  into  any  slaugh- 
tering, packing,  meat-canning,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment,  in  which 
they  are  to  be  slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat  food  products  thereof  are 
to  be  used  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce ;  and  all  cattle,  swine,  sheep,  and 
goats  found  on  such  inspection  to  show  symptoms  of  disease  shall  be  set 
apart  and  slaughtered  separately  from  all  other  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats, 
and  when  so  slaughtered  the  carcasses  of  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats 
shall  be  subject  to  a  careful  examination  and  inspection,  all  as  provided  by 
the  rules  and  regulations  to  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as 
herein  provided  for. 

That  for  the  purposes  hereinbefore  set  forth  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
shall  cause  to  be  made  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose,  as  herein- 
after provided,  a  post-mortem  examination  and  inspection  of  the  carcasses 
and  parts  thereof  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  to  be  prepared  for, 
human  consumption  at  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing 
rendering,  or  similar  establishment  in  any  State,  Territory,  or  the  District  of 
Columbia  for  transportation  or  sale  as  articles  of  interstate  or  foreign  com- 
merce ;  and  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  such  animals  found  to  be 
2N  545 


546  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food  shall  be  marked, 
stamped,  tagged,  or  labeled  as  "Inspected  and  Passed;"  and  said  inspectors 
shall  label,  mark,  stamp,  or  tag  as  "  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  all  carcasses 
and  parts  thereof  of  animals  found  to  be  unsound,  unhealthf  ul,  unwholesome, 
or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food ;  and  all  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  thus 
inspected  and  condemned  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes  by  the  said 
establishment  in  the  presence  of  an  inspector,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture may  remove  inspectors  from  any  such  establishment  which  fails  to  so 
destroy  any  such  condemned  carcass  or  part  thereof,  and  said  inspectors, 
after  said  first  inspection  shall,  when  they  deem  it  necessary,  reinspect  said 
carcasses  or  parts  thereof  to  determine  whether  since  the  first  inspection  the 
same  have  become  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  in  any  way  unfit 
for  human  food,  and  if  any  carcass  or  any  part  thereof  shall,  upon  examina- 
tion and  inspection  subsequent  to  the  first  examination  and  inspection,  be 
found  to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human 
food,  it  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes  by  the  said  establishment  in  the 
presence  of  an  inspector,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  in- 
spectors from  any  establishment  which  fails  to  so  destroy  any  such  con- 
demned carcass  or  part  thereof. 

The  foregoing  provisions  shall  apply  to  all  carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses 
of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  or  the  meat  or  meat  products  thereof 
which  may  be  brought  into  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting, 
packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment,  and  such  examination  and 
inspection  shall  be  had  before  the  said  carcasses  or  parts  thereof  shall  be 
allowed  to  enter  into  any  department  wherein  the  same  are  to  be  treated 
and  prepared  for  meat  food  products ;  and  the  foregoing  provisions  shall 
also  apply  to  all  such  products  which,  after  having  been  issued  from  any 
slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establish- 
ment, shall  be  returned  to  the  same  or  to  any  similar  establishment  where 
such  inspection  is  maintained. 

That  for  the  purposes  hereinbefore  set  forth  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
shall  cause  to  be  made  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose  an  examina- 
tion and  inspection  of  all  meat  food  products  prepared  for  interstate  or  for- 
eign commerce  in  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  render- 
ing, or  similar  estabhshment,  and  for  the  purposes  of  any  examination  and 
inspection  said  inspectors  shall  have  access  at  all  times,  by  day  or  night, 
whether  the  establishment  be  operated  or  not,  to  every  part  of  said  establish- 
ment ;  and  said  inspectors  shall  mark,  stamp,  tag,  or  label  as  "  Inspected  and 
Passed"  all  such  products  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  and  wholesome,  and 
which  contain  no  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredients  which  render 
such  meat  or  meat  food  products  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or 


APPENDIX   D  547 

unfit  for  human  food ;  and  said  inspectors  shall  label,  mark,  stamp,  or  tag  as 
"Inspected  and  Condemned"  all  such  products  found  unsound,  unhealthful, 
and  unwholesome,  or  which  contain  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredi- 
ents which  render  such  meat  or  meat  food  products  unsound,  unhealthful, 
unwholesome,  or  unfit  for  human  food,  and  all  such  condemned  meat  food 
products  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes,  as  hereinbefore  provided,  and 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  inspectors  from  any  establishment 
which  fails  to  so  destroy  such  condemned  meat  food  products :  Provided, 
That,  subject  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the 
provisions  hereof  in  regard  to  preservatives  shall  not  apply  to  meat  food  prod- 
ucts for  export  to  any  foreign  country  and  which  are  prepared  or  packed 
according  to  the  specifications  or  directions  of  the  foreign  purchaser,  when  no 
substance  is  used  in  the  preparation  or  packing  thereof  in  conflict  with  the 
laws  of  the  foreign  country  to  which  said  article  is  to  be  exported ;  but  if  said 
article  shall  be  in  fact  sold  or  offered  for  sale  for  domestic  use  or  consump- 
tion, then  this  proviso  shall  not  exempt  said  article  from  the  operation  of  all 
the  other  provisions  of  this  act. 

That  when  any  meat  or  meat  food  product  prepared  for  interstate  or 
foreign  commerce  which  has  been  inspected  as  hereinbefore  provided  and 
marked  "Inspected  and  Passed"  shall  be  placed  or  packed  in  any  can,  pot, 
tin,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering  in  any  establishment  where  in- 
spection under  the  provisions  of  this  act  is  maintained,  the  person,  firm,  or 
corporation  preparing  said  product  shall  cause  a  label  to  be  attached  to  said 
can,  pot,  tin,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering,  under  the  supervision 
of  an  inspector,  which  label  shall  state  that  the  contents  thereof  have  been 
"  Inspected  and  Passed  "  under  the  provisions  of  this  act ;  and  no  inspection 
and  examination  of  meat  or  meat  food  products  deposited  op  inclosed  in 
cans,  tins,  pots,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering  in  any  establishment 
where  inspection  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  is  maintained  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  complete  until  such  meat  or  meat  food  products  have  been 
sealed  or  inclosed  in  said  can,  tin,  pot,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering 
under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector,  and  no  such  meat  or  meat  food  prod- 
ucts shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  by  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  in 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce  under  any  false  or  deceptive  name;  but 
established  trade  name  or  names  which  are  usual  to  such  products  and  which 
are  not  false  and  deceptive  and  which  shall  be  approved  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  are  permitted. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  to  be  made,  by  experts  in  sanita- 
tion-or  by  other  competent  inspectors,  such  inspection  of  all  slaughtering, 
meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishments  in  which 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat  food 


548  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

products  thereof  are  prepared  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  as  may  bt 
necessary  to  inform  himself  concerning  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  same, 
and  to  prescribe  the  rules  and  regulations  of  sanitation  under  which  such 
establishments  shall  be  maintained ;  and  where  the  sanitary  conditions  of 
any  such  establishment  are  such  that  the  meat  or  meat  food  products 
are  rendered  unclean,  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise 
unfit  for  human  food,  he  shall  refuse  to  allow  said  meat  or  meat  food 
products  to  be  labeled,  marked,  stamped,  or  tagged  as  "Inspected  and 
Passed." 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  an  examination  and  inspec- 
tion of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  and  the  food  products  thereof, 
slaughtered  and  prepared  in  the  establishments  hereinbefore  described  for 
the  purposes  of  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  to  be  made  during  the  night- 
time as  well  as  during  the  daytime  when  the  slaughtering  of  said  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  and  goats,  or  the  preparation  of  said  food  products  is  conducted  during 
the  night  time. 

That  on  and  after  October  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  no  person, 
firm,  or  corporation  shall  transport  or  offer  for  transportation,  and  no  carrier 
of  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  shall  transport  or  receive  for  transportation 
from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  any  other  State  or 
Territory  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  to  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States,  or  to  any  foreign  country,  any  carcasses  or  parts  thereof, 
meat,  or  meat  food  products  thereof  which  have  not  been  inspected,  exam- 
ined, and  marked  as  "  Inspected  and  Passed,"  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  this  act  and  with  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture :  Provided,  That  all  meat  and  meat  food  products  on  hand  on 
October  first/  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  at  establishments  where  inspection 
has  not  been  maintained,  or  which  have  been  inspected  under  existing  law, 
shall  be  examined  and  labeled  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  shall  prescribe,  and  then  shall  be  allowed  to  be  sold  in 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce. 

That  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  officer,  agent,  or  employee  thereof 
shall  forge,  counterfeit,  simulate,  or  falsely  represent,  or  shall  without  proper 
authority  use,  fail  to  use,  or  detach,  or  shall  knowingly  or  wrongfully  alter, 
deface,  or  destroy,  or  fail  to  deface  or  destroy,  any  of  the  marks,  stamps,  tags, 
labels ,  or  other  identification  devices  provided  for  in  this  act,  or  in  and  as 
directed  ity  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  hereunder  by  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  on  any  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  or  the  food  product,  or 
containers  thereof,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  or  any  certificate  in 
relation  thereto,  authorized  or  required  by  this  act  or  by  the  said  rules  and 
regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


APPENDIX  D  549 

That  the  Secretar>  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  to  be  made  a  careful  inspec- 
tion of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  intended  and  offered  for  export  to 
foreign  countries  at  such  times  and  places,  and  in  such  manner  as  he  may 
deem  proper,  to  ascertain  whether  such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are 
free  from  disease. 

And  for  this  purpose  he  may  appoint  inspectors  who  shall  be  authorized 
to  give  an  official  certificate  clearly  stating  the  condition  in  which  such  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  found. 

And  no  clearance  shall  be  given  to  any  vessel  having  on  board  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  or  goats  for  export  to  a  foreign  country  until  the  owner  or  shipper  of 
such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  has  a  certificate  from  the  inspector  herein 
authorized  to  be  appointed,  stating  that  the  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats 
are  sound  and  healthy,  or  unless  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  have 
waived  the  requirement  of  such  certificate  for  export  to  the  particular  country 
to  which  such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  are  to  be  exported. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  also  cause  to  be  made  a  careful 
inspection  of  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and 
goats,  the  meat  of  which,  fresh,  salted,  canned,  corned,  packed,  cured,  or 
otherwise  prepared,  is  intended  and  offered  for  export  to  any  foreign  country, 
at  such  times  and  places  and  in  such  manner  as  he  may  deem  proper. 

And  for  this  purpose  he  may  appoint  inspectors  who  shall  be  authorized 
to  give  an  official  certificate  stating  the  condition  in  which  said  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  or  goats,  and  the  meat  thereof,  are  found. 

And  no  clearance  shall  be  given  to  any  vessel  having  on  board  any  fresh, 
salted,  canned,  corned,  or  packed  beef,  mutton,  pork,  or  goat  meat,  being 
the  meat  of  animals  killed  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  or  except  as  herein- 
before provided  for  export  to  and  sale  in  a  foreign  country  from  any  port  in 
the  United  States,  until  the  owner  or  shipper  thereof  shall  obtain  from  an 
inspector  appointed  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  a  certificate  that  the  said 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  were  sound  and  healthy  at  the  time  of  inspection, 
and  that  their  meat  is  sound  and  wholesome,  unless  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture shall  have  waived  the  requirements  of  such  certificate  for  the  country 
to  which  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  or  meats  are  to  be  exported. 

That  the  inspectors  provided  for  herein  shall  be  authorized  to  give  official 
certificates  of  the  sound  and  wholesome  condition  of  the  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
and  goats,  their  carcasses  and  products  as  herein  described,  and  one  copy  of 
every  certificate  granted  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  filed  in  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  another  copy  shall  be  dehvered  to  the  owner  or 
shipper,  and  when  the  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  or  their  carcasses  and 
products  are  sent  abroad,  a  third  copy  shall  be  delivered  to  the  chief  oflScer  of 
the  vessel  on  which  the  shipment  shall  be  made. 


550  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

That  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged  in  the  interstate  commerce 
of  meat  or  meat  food  products  shall  transport  or  offer  for  transportation,  sell 
or  offer  to  sell  an)-  such  meat  or  meat  food  products  in  any  Slate  or  Territory 
or  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States,  other  than  in  the  State  or  Territory  or  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia or  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  in  which  the 
slaughtering,  packing,  canning,  rendering,  or  other  similar  establishment 
owned,  leased,  operated  by  said  firm,  person,  or  corporation  is  located  unless 
and  until  said  person,  firm,  or  corporation  shall  have  complied  with  all  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act. 

That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  officer  or  agent  of  any  such 
person,  firm,  or  corporation,  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this 
act  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  punished  on  con- 
viction thereof  by  a  fine  of  not  exceeding  ten  thousand  dollars  or  imprison- 
ment for  a  period  not  more  than  two  years  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprison- 
ment, in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  appoint  from  time  to  time  inspec- 
tors to  make  examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats, 
the  inspection  of  which  is  hereby  provided  for,  and  of  all  carcasses  and  parts 
thereof,  and  of  all  meats  and  meat  food  products  thereof,  and  of  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  all  establishments  in  which  such  meat  and  meat  food  products 
hereinbefore  described  are  prepared;  and  said  inspectors  shall  refuse  to 
stamp,  mark,  tag,  or  label  any  carcass  or  any  part  thereof,  or  meat  food  prod- 
uct therefrom,  prepared  in  any  establishment  hereinbefore  mentioned, 
until  the  same  shall  have  actually  been  inspected  and  found  to  be  sound, 
healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  and  to  contain  no  dyes,  chemi- 
cals, preservatives,  or  ingredients  which  render  such  meat  food  product  im- 
sound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  unfit  for  human  food ;  and  to  have  been 
prepared  under  proper  sanitary  conditions,  hereinbefore  provided  for ;  and 
shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  are  provided  by  this  act  and  by  the  rules 
and  regulations  to  be  prescribed  by  said  Secretary  of  Agriculture ;  and  said 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall,  from  time  to  time,  make  such  rules  and  regu- 
lations as  are  necessary  for  the  efficient  execution  of  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  and  all  inspections  and  examinations  made  under  this  act  shall  be 
such  and  made  in  such  manner  as  described  in  the  rules  and  regulations 
prescribed  by  said  Secretary  of  Agriculture  not  inconsistent  with  the 
provisidas  of  this  act. 

That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  agent  or  employee  of  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation,  who  shall  give,  pay,  or  offer,  directly  or  indirectly, 
to  any  inspector,  deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  any  other  officer  or 
employee  of  the  United  States  authorized  to  perform  any  of  the  duties  pre- 


APPENDIX  D  551 

scribed  by  this  act  or  by  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture any  money  or  other  thing  of  value,  with  intent  to  influence  said  inspector, 
deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  other  officer  or  employee  of  the  United 
States  in  the  discharge  of  any  duty  herein  provided  for,  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  felony  and,  upon  conviction  thereof,  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not 
less  than  five  thousand  dollars  nor  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars  and  by 
imprisonment  not  less  than  one  year  nor  more  than  three  years ;  and  any 
inspector,  deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  other  officer  or  employee  of  the 
United  States  authorized  to  perform  any  of  the  duties  prescribed  by  this  act 
who  shall  accept  any  money,  gift,  or  other  thing  of  value  from  any  person, 
firm,  or  corporation,  or  officers,  agents,  or  employees  thereof,  given  with 
intent  to  influence  his  official  action,  or  who  shall  receive  or  accept  from  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any 
gift,  money,  or  other  thing  of  value  given  with  any  purpose  or  intent  whatso- 
ever, shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  felony  and  shah,  upon  conviction  thereof, 
be  summarily  discharged  from  office  and  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  less 
than  one  thousand  dollars  nor  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars  and  by  im- 
prisonment not  less  than  one  year  nor  more  than  three  years. 

That  the  provisions  of  this  act  requiring  inspection  to  be  made  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  not  apply  to  animals  slaughtered  by  any 
farmer  on  the  farm  and  sold  and  transported  as  interstate  or  foreign  com- 
merce, nor  to  retail  butchers  and  retail  dealers  in  meat  and  meat  food  prod- 
ucts, supplying  their  customers  :  Provided,  That  if  any  person  shall  sell  or 
offer  for  sale  or  transportation  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any  meat 
or  meat  food  products  which  are  diseased,  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwhole- 
some, or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  knowing  that  such  meat  food  prod- 
ucts are  intended  for  human  consumption,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thou- 
sand dollars  or  by  imprisonment  for  a  period  of  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by 
both  such  fine  and  imprisonment :  Provided  also,  That  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  is  authorized  to  maintain  the  inspection  in  this  act  provided  for 
at  any  slaughtering,  meat  canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar, 
establishment  notwithstanding  this  exception,  and  that  the  persons  operat- 
ing the  same  may  be  retail  butchers  and  retail  dealers  or  farmers ;  and  where 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  establish  such  inspection  then  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  shall  apply  notwithstanding  this  exception. 

That  there  is  permanently  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the  Treas- 
ury not  otherwise  appropriated,  the  sum  of  three  million  dollars,  for  the 
expenses  of  the  inspection  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  and  the  meat  and 
meat  food  products  thereof  which  enter  into  interstate  or  foreign  commerce 
and  for  all  expenses  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  this  act 


552  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

relating  to  meat  inspection,  including  rent  and  the  employment  of  labor  in 
Washington  and  elsewhere,  for  each  year.  And  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
shall,  in  his  annual  estimates  made  to  Congress,  submit  a  statement  in  detail, 
showing  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  such  inspections  and  the  salary 
or  per  diem  paid  to  each,  together  with  the  contingent  expenses  of  such 
inspectors  and  where  they  have  been  and  are  employed. 


EXTRACTS    FROM    MEAT    INSPECTION  REGULATIONS 
UNITED   STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU  OF   ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 

Order  211 

[Effective  November  i,  1914.I 

******* 

Regulation  8.  Sanitation 

Section  i.  Prior  to  the  inauguration  of  inspection,  an 
examination  of  the  estabHshment  and  premises  shall  be  made 
by  a  bureau  ^  employee  and  the  requirements  for  sanitation  and 
the  necessary  facilities  for  inspection  specified. 

Section  2.  TripHcate  copies  of  plans,  properly  drawn  to 
scale,  and  of  specifications,  including  plumbing  and  drainage, 
for  remodeling  plants  of  official  establishments  and  for  new 
structures,  shall  be  submitted  to  the  chief  of  bureau  in  advance 
of  construction. 

Section  3.  Paragraph  i.  Official  establishments,  establish- 
-ments  at  which  market  inspection  is  conducted,  and  premises 
on  or  in  which  any  meat  or  product  is  prepared  or  handled  by  or 
for  persons  to  whom  certificates  of  exemption  have  been  issued, 
shall  be  maintained  in  sanitary  condition,  and  to  this  end  the 
requireQients  of  paragraphs  2  to  8,  inclusive,  of  this  section  shall 
be  complied  with. 

'  Throughout  the  regulations  the  word  bureau  is  used  to  designate  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry. 


APPENDIX  D  553 

Paragraph  2.  There  shall  be  abundant  light,  both  natural  and 
artificial,  and  sufficient  ventilation  for  all  rooms  and  compart- 
ments, to  insure  sanitary  condition. 

Paragraph  j.  There  shall  be  an  efficient  drainage  and  plumb- 
ing system  for  the  establishment  and  premises,  and  all  drains 
and  gutters  shall  be  properly  installed  with  approved  traps  and 
vents. 

Paragraph  4.  The  water  supply  shall  be  ample,  clean,  and 
potable,  with  adequate  facilities  for  its  distribution  in  the 
plant.  Every  establishment  shall  make  known,  and  whenever 
required  shall  afford  opportunity  for  inspection  of,  the  source 
of  its  water  supply  and  the  location  and  character  of  its  reser- 
voir and  storage  tanks. 

Paragraph  5.  The  floors,  walls,  ceilings,  partitions,  posts, 
doors,  and  other  parts  of  all  structures  shall  be  of  such  mate- 
rials, construction,  and  finish  as  will  make  them  susceptible  of 
being  readily  and  thoroughly  cleaned.  The  floors  shall  be  kept 
water-tight.  The  rooms  and  compartments  used  for  edible 
products  shall  be  separate  and  distinct  from  those  used  for 
inedible  products. 

Paragraph  6.  The  rooms  and  compartments  in  which  any 
meat  or  product  is  prepared  or  handled  shall  be  free  from  odors 
from  dressing  and  toilet  rooms,  catch  basins,  hide  cellars,  casing 
rooms,  inedible  tank  and  fertilizer  rooms,  and  stables. 

Paragraph  7.  Every  practicable  precaution  shall  be  taken 
to  keep  establishments  free  of  flies,  rats,  mice,  and  other  vermin. 
The  use  of  rat  poisons  is  prohibited  in  rooms  or  compartments 
where  any  unpacked  meat  or  product  is  stored  or  handled; 
but  their  use  is  not  forbidden  in  hide  cellars,  inedible  compart- 
ments, outbuildings,  or  similar  places,  or  in  storerooms  contain- 
ing canned  or  tierced  products.  So-called  rat  viruses  shall  not 
be  used  in  any  part  of  an  establishment  or  the  premises  thereof. 

Paragraph  8.  Dogs  shall  not  be  admitted  into  official  estab- 
lishments except,  upon  permission  of  the  inspector  in  charge,  for 


554  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

the  purpose  of  destroying  rats.  Dogs  which  are  admitted  shall 
be  kept  free  from  tapeworm  infestation.  Such  examinations 
shall  be  made  to  determine  freedom  from  infestation  as  the  chief 
of  bureau  may  prescribe.  Contamination  by  the  excreta  of 
these  animals  shall  not  be  permitted,  nor  shall  the  dogs  be  al- 
lowed to  eat  the  raw  viscera  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats. 

Section  4.  Adequate  sanitary  facilities  and  accommodations 
shall  be  furnished  by  every  official  establishment.  Of  these 
the  following  are  specifically  required : 

(o)  Dressing  rooms,  toilet  rooms,  and  urinals,  sufficient  in 
number,  ample  in  size,  conveniently  located,  properly  ventilated, 
and  meeting  all  requirements  as  to  sanitary  construction  and 
equipment.  These  shall  be  separate  from  the  rooms  and 
compartments  in  which  meat  and  products  are  prepared,  stored, 
or  handled.  Where  both  sexes  are  employed,  separate  facilities 
shall  be  provided. 

(b)  Modern  lavatory  accommodations,  including  running  hot 
and  cold  water,  soap,  towels,  etc.  These  shall  be  placed  in  or 
near  toilet  and  urinal  rooms  and  also  at  such  other  places  in  the 
establishment  as  may  be  essential  to  assure  cleanliness  of  all 
persons  handling  any  meat  or  product. 

(c)  Properly  located  facilities  for  disinfecting  and  cleansing 
utensils  and  hands  of  all  persons  handling  any  meat  or  product. 

(d)  Cuspidors  of  such  shape  as  not  readily  to  be  upset  and  of 
such  material  as  to  be  readily  disinfected.  They  shall  be  suffi- 
cient in  number  and  accessibly  placed  in  all  rooms  and  places 
designated  by  the  inspector  in  charge,  and  all  persons  who 
expectorate  shall  be  required  to  use  them. 

Section  5.  Equipment  and  utensils  used  for  preparing,  proc- 
essing, and  otherwise  handling  any  meat  or  product  shall  be  of 
such  materials  and  construction  as  will  make  them  susceptible 
of  being  readily  and  thoroughly  cleaned  and  such  as  will  insure 
strict  cleanliness  in  the  preparation  and  handUng  of  all  meat 
and  products.    Trucks  and  receptacles  used  for  inedible  prod- 


APPENDIX  D  555 

ucts  shall  bear  some  conspicuous  and  distinctive  mark  and 
shall  not  be  used  for  handling  edible  products. 

Section  6.  Rooms,  compartments,  places,  equipment,  and 
utensils  used  for  preparing,  storing,  or  otherwise  handling  any 
meat  or  product,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  establishment,  shall 
be  kept  clean  and  sanitary. 

Section  7.  Paragraph  i.  Operations  and  procedures  involv- 
ing the  preparation,  storing,  or  handling  of  any  meat  or  product 
shall  be  strictly  in  accord  with  cleanly  and  sanitary  methods. 

Paragraph  2.  Rooms  and  compartments  in  which  inspections 
are  made  and  those  in  which  animals  are  slaughtered  or  any 
meat  or  product  is  processed  or  prepared  shall  be  kept  sufl&ciently 
free  of  steam  and  vapors  to  enable  bureau  employees  to  make 
inspections  and  to  insure  cleanly  operations.  The  walls  and 
ceilings  of  rooms  and  compartments  under  refrigeration  shall 
be  kept  reasonably  free  from  moisture. 

Paragraph  3.  Butchers  and  others  who  dress  or  handle 
diseased  carcasses  or  parts  shall,  before  handling  or  dressing 
other  carcasses  or  parts,  cleanse  their  hands  of  grease,  immerse 
them  in  a  prescribed  disinfectant,  and  rinse  them  in  clean  water. 
Implements  used  in  dressing  diseased  carcasses  shall  be  thor- 
oughly cleansed  in  boiling  water  or  in  a  prescribed  disinfectant, 
followed  by  rinsing  in  clean  water.  The  employees  of  the 
establishment  who  handle  any  meat  or  product  shall  keep  their 
hands  clean,  and  in  all  cases  after  visiting  the  toilet  rooms  or 
urinals  shall  wash  their  hands  before  handling  any  meat  or 
product  or  implements  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
same. 

Paragraph  4.  Aprons,  frocks,  and  other  outer  clothing  worn 
by  persons  who  handle  any  meat  or  product  shall  be  of  material 
that  is  readily  cleansed,  and  only  clean  garments  shall  be  worn. 
Knife  scabbards  shall  be  kept  clean. 

Paragraph  5.  Such  practices  as  spitting  on  whetstones, 
placing  skewers  or  knives  in  the  mouth,  inflating  lungs  or  cas- 


556  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ings,  or  testing  with  air  from  the  mouth  such  receptacles  as 
tierces,  kegs,  casks,  and  the  Hke,  containing  or  intended  as 
containers  of  any  meat  or  product,  are  prohibited.  Only  me- 
chanical means  may  be  used  for  testing. 

Section  8.  The  wagons  and  cars  in  which  any  meat  or  prod- 
uct is  transported  shall  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condi- 
tion. Wagons  used  in  transferring  loose  meat  and  products 
between  official  establishments  shall  be  closed  or  so  covered  that 
the  contents  shall  be  kept  clean. 

Section  9.  Paragraph  i.  Second-hand  tubs,  barrels,  and 
boxes  intended  for  use  as  containers  of  any  meat  or  product 
shall  be  inspected  when  received  at  the  establishment  and  be- 
fore they  are  cleaned.  Those  showing  evidence  of  misuse  ren- 
dering them  unfit  to  serve  as  containers  for  food  products  shall 
be  rejected.  The  use  of  those  showing  no  evidence  of  previous 
misuse  may  be  allowed  after  they  have  been  thoroughly  and 
properly  cleaned.  Steaming,  after  thorough  scrubbing  and 
rinsing,  is  essential  to  cleaning  tubs  and  barrels. 

Paragraph  2.  Interiors  of  tank  cars  about  to  be  used  for  the 
transportation  of  any  meat  food  product  shall  be  carefully 
inspected  for  cleanliness  even  though  the  last  previous  content 
was  edible.  Lye  and  soda  solutions  used  in  cleaning  must  be 
thoroughly  removed  by  rinsing  with  clean  water.  In  their 
examinations  bureau  employees  shall  enter  the  tank  with  a  light 
and  examine  all  parts  of  the  interior. 

Section  10.  The  outer  premises  of  every  official  establish- 
ment, embracing  docks  and  areas  where  cars  and  wagons  are 
loaded,  and  the  driveways,  approaches,  yards,  pens,  and  alleys, 
shall  be  properly  drained  and  kept  in  clean  and  orderly  con- 
dition. All  catch  basins  on  the  premises  shall  be  of  such  con- 
struction and  location  and  be  given  such  attention  as  will  insure 
their  being  kept  in  acceptable  condition  as  regards  odors  and 
cleanliness.  The  accumulation  on  the  premises  of  establish- 
ments of  any  material  in  which  flies  may  breed,  such  as  hog  hair, 


APPENDIX  D  557 

bones,  paunch  contents,  or  manure,  is  forbidden.  No  nuisance 
shall  be  allowed  in  any  establishment  or  on  its  premises. 

Section  ii.  No  establishment  shall  employ  in  any  depart- 
ment where  any  meat  or  product  is  handled  or  prepared  any 
person  affected  with  tuberculosis  or  other  communicable  disease. 

Section  12.  When  necessary,  bureau  employees  shall  attach 
a  "U.  S.  rejected"  tag  to  any  equipment  or  utensil  which  is 
insanitary,  or  the  use  of  which  would  be  in  violation  of  these 
regulations.  No  equipment  or  utensil  so  tagged  shall  again 
be  used  until  made  sanitary.  Such  tag  so  placed  shall  not  be 
removed  by  any  one  other  than  a  bureau  employee. 

Regulation  9.    Ante-mortem  Inspection 

Section  i.  Paragraph  i.  An  ante-mortem  examination  and 
inspection  shall  be  made  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats 
about  to  be  slaughtered  in  an  official  establishment  before  their 
slaughter  shall  be  allowed. 


Section  2.  Paragraph  i.  All  animals  plainly  showing  on 
ante-mortem  inspection  any  disease  or  condition  that  under 
these  regulations  would  cause  condemnation  of  their  carcasses 
on  post-mortem  inspection  shall  be  marked  "U.  S.  condemned" 
and  disposed  of  in  accordance  with  section  8  of  this  regulation. 

*****  itc  111 

Section  3.  All  animals  required  by  these  regulations  to  be 
treated  as  suspects,  or  to  be  marked  as  suspects,  or  to  be  marked 
so  as  to  retain  their  identity  as  suspects,  shall  be  marked  by  or 
under  the  supervision  of  a  bureau  employee,  "U.  S.  suspect," 
or  with  such  other  distinctive  mark  or  marks  to  indicate  that 
they  are  suspects  as  the  chief  of  bureau  may  adopt.  No  such 
mark  shall  be  removed  except  by  a  bureau  employee. 


558  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

Section  8.  Animals  marked  "U.  S.  condemned"  shall  be 
killed  by  the  establishment,  if  not  already  dead,  and  shall  not 
be  taken  into  an  establishment  to  be  slaughtered  or  dressed, 
nor  shall  they  be  conveyed  into  any  department  o£  the  establish- 
ment used  for  edible  products,  but  they  shall  be  disposed  of  and 
tanked  in  the  manner  provided  for  condemned  carcasses.  .  .  . 


Regulation  lo.    Post-mortem  Inspection 

Section  i.  A  careful  post-mortem  examination  and  inspec- 
tion shall  be  made  of  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  slaughtered  at  official  establishments. 

:|e  :1e  %  A  :tc  :)e  :}( 

Section  3.  Paragraph  i.  Each  carcass,  including  all  parts 
and  detached  organs  thereof,  in  which  any  lesion  of  disease  or 
other  condition  is  found  that  might  render  the  meat  or  any 
organ  unfit  for  food  purposes,  and  which  for  that  reason  would 
require  a  subsequent  inspection,  shall  be  retained  by  the  bureau 
employee  at  the  time  of  inspection  and  taken  to  the  place  desig- 
nated for  final  inspection. 

Section  4.  Each  carcass  or  part  which  is  found  on  final  in- 
spection to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise 
unfit  for  human  food  shall  be  conspicuously  marked  on  the 
surface  tissues  thereof  by  a  bureau  employee  at  the  time  of 
inspection  "U.  S.  inspected  and  condemned."  Condemned 
detached  organs  and  parts  of  such  character  that  they  cannot 
be  so  marked  shall  be  immediately  placed  in  trucks  or  recep- 
tacles'which  shall  be  kept  plainly  marked  "U.  S.  inspected  and 
condemned  "  in  letters  not  less  than  2  inches  high.  All  con- 
demned carcasses,  parts,  and  organs  shall  remain  in  the  custody 
of  a  bureau  employee  and  shall  be  tanked  as  required  in  these 


APPENDIX  D  559 

regulations  at  or  before  the  close  of  the  day  on  which  they  are 
condemned,  or  be  locked  in  the  "U.  S.  condemned"  room  or 
compartment.  Condemned  articles  shall  not  be  allowed  to 
accumulate  unnecessarily  in  the  condemned  room  or  compart- 
ment. 

Section  5.  Paragraph  i.  Carcasses  and  parts  passed  for 
sterilization  shall  be  conspicuously  marked  on  the  surface  tissues 
thereof  by  a  bureau  employee  at  the  time  of  inspection  "Passed 
for  sterilization."  All  such  carcasses  and  parts  shall  be  steri- 
lized in  accordance  with  regulation  15  and  until  so  sterilized 
shall  remain  in  the  custody  of  a  bureau  employee. 

Paragraph  2.  In  all  cases  where  carcasses  showing  localized 
lesions  of  disease  are  passed  for  food  or  for  sterilization  the 
diseased  parts  shall  be  removed  before  the  "U.  S.  retained"  tag 
is  taken  from  the  carcass,  and  such  parts  shall  be  condemned. 


Regulation  15.    Rendering  Carcasses  and  Parts  into  Lard  and  Tallow,  and 
Other  Sterilization 

Section  i.  Carcasses  and  parts  passed  for  sterilization  may 
be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  provided  that  such  rendering  is 
done  in  the  following  manner :  The  lower  opening  of  the  tank 
shall  first  be  securely  sealed  by  a  bureau  employee,  then  the 
carcasses  or  parts  shall  be  placed  in  the  tank  in  his  presence, 
after  which  the  upper  opening  shall  be  securely  sealed  by  such 
employee,  who  shall  then  see  that  a  sufficient  force  of  steam  is 
turned  into  the  tank.  Such  carcasses  and  parts  shall  be  cooked 
at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  220°  F.  for  a  time  sufficient  to 
render  them  effectually  into  lard  or  tallow. 

Section  2.  Establishments  not  equipped  with  steaming 
tanks  for  rendering  carcasses  and  parts  into  lard  or  tallow  as 
provided  in  section  i  of  this  regulation  may  render  such  car- 
casses or  parts  in  open  kettles  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a 
bureau  employee.     Such  rendering  shall  be  done  at  a  temper- 


560  FOOD   PRODUCTS 

ature  and  for  a  time  sufficient  to  render  the  carcasses  and  parts 
effectually  into  lard  or  tallow,  and  shall  be  done  only  during 
regular  hours  of  work. 

Section  3.  Paragraph  i.  Carcasses  and  parts  passed  for 
sterilization  and  which  are  not  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  may 
be  utilized  for  food  purposes  provided  they  are  first  sterilized 
by  methods,  and  handled  and  marked  in  a  manner  approved  by 
the  chief  of  bureau. 

Paragraph  2.  Any  carcasses  or  parts  prepared  in  com- 
pliance with  paragraph  i  of  this  section  may  be  canned  if 
the  container  be  plainly  and  conspicuously  marked  so  as  to 
show  that  the  product  is  second  grade,  class,  or  quahty  and 
has  been  sterilized. 


APPENDIX   E 

TABLE  OF   loo-CALORIE  PORTIONS 

Explanation  of  Table.  —  The  first  column  of  figures  in  the 
table  gives  the  number  of  loo- Calorie  portions  in  one  pound  of 
the  food  as  purchased.  The  next  four  columns  show  the  weight 
of  food  which  yields  loo  Calories,  i.e.  the  weight  of  the  loo- 
Calorie  portion,  both  in  ounces  and  in  grams,  and  both  for  the 
material  as  purchased  and  for  the  edible  portion.  Next  follow 
columns  showing  the  amounts  of  protein  (in  Calories  and  in 
grams)  and  the  amounts  of  calcium,  calculated  as  CaO,  phos- 
phorus, calculated  as  P2O5,  and  iron,  calculated  as  Fe,  in  the  100- 
Calorie  portion.  Finally  there  is  given  the  balance  of  acid- 
forming  and  base-forming  elements  contained  in  the  loo-Calorie 
portion,  expressed  as  excess  of  acid  or  of  base  and  stated  in 
terms  of  the  units  explained  on  pages  352  and  353. 

It  is  estimated  that  meats  contain  0.00075  gram  of  CaO, 
0.023  gram  P2O5,  0.00015  gram  Fe,  and  yield  0.5  unit  of  excess 
acid  for  every  gram  of  protein;  and  that  fish  contain  0.0015 
gram  CaO,  0.025  gram  P2O6,  0.00004  gram  Fe,  and  yield  0.5 
unit  of  excess  acid  for  every  gram  of  protein.  These  estimates 
have  been  used  in  calculating  the  figures  given  for  the  dififerent 
cuts  of  meat  and  for  the  different  kinds  of  fish. 


S6i 


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APPENDIX  E 


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SUBJECT    INDEX 


Abattoirs,  see  Slaughter  houses  and  Meat 

inspection  regulations. 
Absinthe,  469. 

Absorption  of  food,  see  Digestibility. 
Acetanilide,  32,  495. 
Acetic  acid,  9,  470-473. 
Acid,  acetic,  9,  470-473. 

aspartic,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314, 
344- 

butyric,  10,  11,  376. 

caffetannic,  466. 

capric,  10,  376. 

caproic,  10,  376. 

caprylic,  10,  376. 

citric,  9,  73,  75. 

glutamic,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289, 

314.  344- 

lactic,  9,  89,  92,  93,  1 1 2-1 14. 

lauric,  10,  376. 

linoleic,  10. 

linolenic,  10. 

myristic,  10,  376. 

oleic,  10,  II,  376. 

palmitic,  10,  11,  376. 

pyroligneous,  472. 

stearic,  10,  11,  376. 

succinic,  9. 

tartaric,  9. 
Acid-forming  elements,  20,  139,  204,  352- 

353- 
Acid  strength  of  vinegars,  473. 
Acids,  amino,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289, 

314.  344- 
Acids  of  fruits,  352. 

\dulteration,  general  definitions  of,  26, 
27.  30-31,  4'>-4i.  484-487- 

of  butter,  374,  381-383. 

of  cheese,  106. 

of  cocoa,  438. 

of  confectionery,  435. 

of  flavoring  extracts,  458. 


Adulteration,  of  honey,  435.       ' 

of  meat,  190-194. 

of  milk,  62-69. 

of  olive  oil,  385. 

of  sausage,  195. 

of  sirups,  433,  434. 

of  spices,  449. 

of  vinegar,  471,  472. 
Alanin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314, 

344- 
Albuminoids,  14. 

Albumins,  13,  71,  72,  135,  136,  253,  273. 
Alcohol,  31,  32,  114,  428,  467-470,  493, 

494- 
Alcoholic  liquors,  466-469,  476-477. 
Alcohol-soluble   proteins,    13,    253,  v2S7, 

268,  273,  279,  289. 
Aldehyde,  cinnamic,  451,  460. 
Alewife,  226. 
Allspice,  450. 
Almond  extract,  459. 
Almonds,  334,  338,  562. 
Alum  baking  powder,  282. 
Amandin,  344. 
Amaranth,  509. 
Amino  acids,  13,  72,  77,  136,  202,  245, 

289-291,  314,  344- 
Ammonia,  from  hydrolysis  of  proteins, 
72,  136,  202,  24s,  289,  314,  344, 

in  cheese,  93,  iii. 

in  eggs,  158. 

in  meat,  166. 

in  milk,  85. 

in  poultry,  221. 
Analysis  of  samples  under  food  and  drugs 

act,  38,  481. 
Anemia,  21,  351. 
Anise,  450. 

oil  of,  459. 
Anise  extract,  459. 
Annato,  370. 


2P 


577 


578 


INDEX 


Apples;  330,  335,  337,  341-343,  347,  353, 

562. 
Apricots,  330,  332,  335,  337,  338,  347, 

353,  562. 
Araban,  s,  8. 
Arabinose,  5,  6. 
Arginin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314, 

344- 
Arrowroot,  439. 
Artichokes,  324,  328. 
Ash  constituents,  in  general,  2-3,  17-21. 
in  loo-Calorie  portions  of  foods,  562- 

575- 
of  cheese,  105,  565. 
of  eggs,  136,  137,  567. 
of  fruits,  347-349,  352-357,  562-575. 
of  grain  products,  293-295,  562-575. 
of  meats,  203-204,  561,  563,  564,  568- 

575- 
of  milk,  73,  75,  77,  570. 
of  oysters,  244,  571. 
of  vegetables,  347-349,  352-357,  562- 
575- 
Asparagus,  324,  328,  347,  353,  562. 
Aspartic  acid,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289, 

314,  344- 
Autointoxication,  214. 

Bacillus  bulgaricus,  113,  125,  126. 

colt,  157-158. 

enteritidis,  191. 
Bacon,  190,  389,  562. 
Bacteria,  in  butter,  369,  395. 

in  buttermilk,  112-114,  125-126. 

in  cheese,  93,  101-103,  123-125. 

in  cream,  121. 

in  eggs,  152-154,  156-159- 

in  fermented  milks,  112-114,  125-126. 

in  intestinal  tract,  351. 

in  meats,  166,  191-194,  217-219. 

in  milk,  51,  52,  55-57,  66,  69-70,  81- 
84,  1 12-1 14,  539-540. 

in  yoghurt,  112-114,  125—126. 
Bactericidal  property  of  milk,  52. 
Bagasse,  403,  425. 
Baking  powders,  281—282. 
Bakery  products,  283-288. 
Balance  of  acid-forming  and  base-form- 
ing elements,  20,  73,  139,  244, 
352-356,  561-575- 
Bananas,  335,  343,  353,  562. 


Barley,  251-254,  562. 
Barley  flour,  253. 
Bass,  226. 
Bay  leaf,  450. 

Beans,  304,  312-315,  324,  328,  347,  353, 
562. 

baked,  328,  562. 

canned,  328. 

kidney,  313,  328,  562. 

lima,  324,  328,  347,  353,  562. 

string,  324,  328,  347,  353,  562. 
Beechnuts,  339. 

Beef,  162-178,  202,  205-212,  213,  216- 
219,  245,  563,  564- 

canned,  166-168,  177. 

composition  of,  percentage,  171-178. 
per  loo-Calorie  pwrtion,  563-564. 

consumption  of,  213. 

cooked,  177. 

corned,  167,  170,  177,  563. 

cuts  of,  170-177,  206-212. 

dried,  167,  177,  178,  563. 

extract,  195-197. 

jerked,  167. 

juice,  563  {see  also  Meat  juice). 

organs,  176,  177,  178,  563. 

spiced,  178. 

steak,  see  Cuts. 

tea,  196. 
Beer,  469. 

Beets,  325,  347,  353,  564. 
Beets,  sugar,  397,  420-422. 
Benzoates  in  food,  legal  status,  42,  43, 

487- 
Beriberi,  267,  297-299. 
Berries,  329-330,  335-338,  564,  567.  569, 

573- 
Beverages,  465-470,  474-477. 
Blackberries,  335,  338,  347,  564. 
Blackfish,  226,  564. 
Blend,  definition  of,  491. 
Blood,  162. 
Blowups,  418. 
Blueberries,  347,  564. 
Bluefish,  226,  564. 
Blue  shade  (permitted  dye),  509. 
Boneblack  in  sugar  refining,  418. 
Bone  extract,  197. 
Borax,  169,  171. 
Boric  acid,  169,  171. 
Bouillon,  463,  564. 


INDEX 


579 


Bouillon  cubes,  ig8,  2ig. 
Brain,  beef,  176. 

pork,  188. 
Branding  of  foods  and  drugs,  31-33.  40- 

43,  488-497- 
Brandy,  469. 
Brazilnuts,  339,  564. 

Bread,  274-280,  285-287,  290-295,  299- 
302,  564. 

comparison  of  white  and  brown,  291- 

295- 

composition  of  various  kinds,  percent- 
age, 285-287. 
per  loo-Calorie  portion,  564. 

com,  256,  28s,  296-297. 

digestibility  of,  291-294. 

"entire  wheat,"  291. 

flour  in  relation  to,  274-279,  299-302. 

Graham,  285,  291,  564. 

rye,  268,  285,  564. 

score  card  for,  280. 

wheat  in  relation  to,  26S-273. 

white,  286,  291-294,  564. 

whole  wheat,  287,  291-294,  564. 
Breadfruit,  347. 
Breakfast  foods,  282. 
Breed,  influence  of,  on  composition  of 

cows'  milk,  59,  60,  84. 
Brie,  88,  94,  103,  105. 
Brine  in  canned  foods  (food  inspection 

decision),  524. 
Brisket,  170-172,  211. 
Broths,  205-206. 
Brussels  sprouts,  328. 
Buckwheat,  251,  254. 
Buckwheat  flour,  254. 
Buffalo  fish,  226. 
Butter,  366-377,  388-396,  565. 
__,  composition  of,  373-377.  565. 

consumption  of,  366,  392. 

digestibility  of,  390. 

fat,  376,  396. 

fuel  value  of,  376,  377,  565. 

influence  on  growth,  391. 

"process,"  377. 

renovated,  377. 

substitutes,  378-383. 
Butter  fish,  226,  565. 
Buttermilk,  112,  114,  565, 
Butternuts,  339,  565. 
Butyric  acid,  10,  376. 


Butjnin,  75,  376. 

By-products,  of  sugar  manufacture,  424- 
431- 

in  corn  products  industry,  263-264. 

in  slaughter  house  industry,  164. 

Cabbage,  325,  347,  353,  565. 
Caffeine,  465,  475,  476. 
Caffeol,  466. 
Caffetannic  acid,  466. 
Cake,  287. 

Calcium,  as  food  constituent  (general), 
2.  3,  19-20,  21. 

in  eggs,  136-139- 

in  fruits,  347-349- 

in  meats,  203. 

in  milk,  74,  78. 

in  oysters,  244. 

in  vegetables,  347-349. 

per    100   Calories  in    various    foods, 
561-575- 
Calf's-foot  jelly,  565. 
Camembert  cheese,  88,  94,  102,  105. 
Candling  of  eggs,  130,  143-144. 
Candy,  31,  435-437.  442- 
Cane,  sugar,  397,  401. 
Cane  sugar  industry,  397-420,  423-429, 

445-447- 
Cannabis  indica,  32,  495. 
Canned  foods  (food  inspection  decisions), 

517,  524- 
Canning,  of  meat,  167-169. 

of  peas,  305-312. 

of  tomatoes,  323. 
Canteloupe,  see  Muskmelon. 
Capers,  451. 
Capric  acid,  10,  376. 
Caprin,  75,  376. 
Caproic  acid,  10,  376. 
Caproin,  75,  376. 
Caprylic  acid,  10,  376. 
Caprylin,  75,  376. 
Caraway,  451. 
Carbohydrates  (general),  i,  2,  4-9. 

of  commercial  glucose,  262. 

of  com,  258. 

of  fruits,  335-338,  341-343- 

of  grain  products,  251-254,  256-258, 
264,  266,  268,  277-279,  283- 
288. 

of  milk,  61. 


58o 


INDEX 


Carbohydrates,  of  nuts,  339-341. 

of  peas,  308,  326,  328. 

of  potatoes,  319,  322,  326-327. 

of  spices,  449-458. 

of  sweet  potatoes,  322,  327,  328. 

of  vegetables,  303,  324-329. 

(See  also  under  Sirups,  Starch,  and 
Sugars.) 
Carbon  as  food  constituent,  2,  3. 
Carbonatation,  422. 
Carotin,  75,  85. 
Carrots,  325,  347,  -iSS,  563. 
Caryophylene,  452. 
Casein,  58,  71,  72,  135. 
Caseinogen,  58,  71,  75. 
Cassia,  451. 

oil  of,  459. 
Cassia  extract,  459. 
Catfish,  226,  565. 
Catsup,  328. 
Caul  fat,  379. 

Cauliflower,  325,  347,  353,  565. 
Cayenne,  451. 
Celery,  325,  348,  353,  565- 
Celery  seed  extract,  459. 
Cellulose,  5,  8  (see  also  under  Carbo- 
hydrates). 
Cereals,  breakfast,  282-283,  284,  295. 

general*  see  under  Grain  products. 
Cereal  coffee,  464. 
Certification  of  dyes  under  food  and  drugs 

act,  508,  510-516,  518-520. 
Certified  milk,  56,  533-544- 
Chard,  325,  348,  354.  565- 
Cheese,  86-1 11,  123-125,  565. 

adulteration,  106. 

American,    89-94,    loi-iii,    123-125, 
565. 
manufacture  of,  89-93. 

bacteria  in,  89,  101. 

brie,  94,  103,  105. 

camembert,  94,  102,  105. 

Cheddar,  see  American. 

Cheshire,  95. 

composition  of,  105,  565. 

digestibility  of,  109. 

Edam,  95,  105. 

Emmental,  95-96,  102,  105. 

fat  standard,  108. 

fuel  value,  109,  565. 

Gorgonzola,  96,  102. 


Cheese,  Gruyere,  97. 

hard,  88. 

Limburg,  97,  103,  105. 

making,  86-94. 

microorganisms  in,  89,  101-103. 

misbranding,  106. 

Neufchatel,  98,  105. 

nutritive  value,  108-110 

Parmesan,  98,  105. 

pineapple,  99,  105. 

place  in  the  diet,  iio-iii 

ripening,  93. 

Roquefort,  99,  102,  105. 

soft,  88. 

Stilton,  100,  102,  105. 
Chemical  composition,  of  food  in  general, 
1-23. 

of  individual  articles  of  food,  see  under 
the  name  of  each. 
Cherries,  335,  338,  348,  s6S- 
Cherry  juice,  354. 
Chestnuts,  339,  565. 
Chicken,  203,  224,  245,  565. 
Chicory,  348. 
Chili-con-came,  177. 
Chives,  348. 

Chloral  hydrate,  32,  495. 
Chlorides,  see  Ash  constituents. 
Chlorine,  see  Ash  constituents. 
Chloroform,  32,  495. 
Chocolate,  436-439,  565. 
Choline,  134. 
Chops,  182,  183,  569. 
Chowder,  clam,  463. 
Chuck,  beef,  170,  172,  207,  211. 

mutton  and  lamb,  182,  183. 

veal,  179,  180. 
Churning,  370-37I- 
Cinnamon,  451. 

oil  of,  460. 
Cinnamon  extract,  459. 
Citral,  458,  460. 
Citric  acid,  9,  73,  74,  75. 
Citron,  337,  348,  354,  565. 
Clams,  241,  243,  244,  565. 
Clarification  of  foods,  regulation,  485. 

of  sugar  cane  juice,  404-405. 

of  sugar  solutions,  418. 
Classification  of  milk,  69-70. 
Cloves,  451. 

oil  of,  460. 


INDEX 


581 


Coagulated  proteins,  15. 

Coal-tar  dyes,  regulations  controlling  use 

of,  31,  41,  507-516,  518-520. 
Coating  of  foods,  regulation,  485. 
Cocaine,  32,  495. 
Cocoa,  437-439.  466,  566. 
Cocoa  butter,  437. 
Cocoa  nibs,  437,  438. 
Coconut,  339,  348,  566. 
Coconut  fat,  221,  382. 
Codfish,  203,  227,  230-232,  236,  566. 
Codliver  oil,  influence  on  growth,  391. 
CoeflBcients  of   digestibility,   see  Diges- 
tibility. 
Coffee,  464,  465-466. 

substitute,  464. 
Cold  storage,  148-153,  159-160,  165-167, 

217,  219,  221-223,  225. 
CoUards,  325. 
Collection  of  samples  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  38. 
CoUops,  177. 
Color,  artificial  in  food  (general),  31,  41, 

507-516,  518-520. 
in  butter,  370. 
in  cheese,  89,  107. 
in  meat,  192. 
in  milk,  63. 
Coloring  vegetables  with  copper,  315- 

318. 
Colors  and  coloring  in  general,  see  Color. 
Colostrum,  58. 
Commission  on  milk  standards,  68,  69- 

71. 
Composition,  of  food  in  general,  1-22. 
of  individual  articles  of  food,  see  under 

the  name  of  each. 
Compounds,  definition  of,  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  493. 
Conalbumin,  135. 
Concrete  sugar,  406. 
Condensed  milk,  114-117,  126-127. 
Confectioners'  sugar,  420. 
Confectionery,  31,  435-439.  484-485- 
Conjugated  proteins,  14-15. 
Consommd,  463,  566. 
Constituents  of  foods  in  general,  1-23. 
of  individual  articles  of  food,  see  under 

the  name  of  each. 
Cookies,  287. 
Cordials,  469. 


Coriander,  452. 

Corn,  161,  163,  251,  255-264,  296-297, 
305,  325.  328,  348,  566. 

meal,  256,  283,  566. 

oil,  221. 

preparations,  284,  565. 

products,  industry,  259-263. 

proteins,  constitution  of,  289. 

sirup,  262,  263,  439. 

starch,  8,  259-263,  439,  566. 
Cottonseed  oil,  11,  221,  380,  386-388. 

"stearine,"  382. 
Count  of  food  in  package,  32,  528-531. 
Cowpeas,  313,  326,  349,  566. 
Cows  for  milk  production,  49-50,  59-60, 

69-70,  87,*88,  534,  538-539- 
Crabs,  238,  243,  244. 
Cracked  wheat,  285. 
Crackers,  287,  566. 
Cranberries,  335,  348,  354,  361,  567. 
Crayfish,  238,  243. 
Cream,  118-121,  127,  567. 
Cream  of  tartar  baking  powder,  281. 
Creatin,  202. 
Crystallizers,  411,  419. 
Crystallizing  of  sugar,  409,  411,  419. 
Cucumbers,  325,  348,  354,  567. 
Cumin  seed,  452. 
Currants,  335,  337,  348,  567. 
Cusk,  227. 

Cuts  of  meat,  composition  of,  i7i-i7'6, 
180-181,  183-185,  187-190. 

diagrams  of,  170,  179,  182,  186,  208. 

relative  economy  of,  206-212. 
Cystin,  13,  72,  136,  289. 

Dairy  and  food  commissioner,  oflBce  of, 

45- 
Dairy  employees,  51,  69,  542-544. 
Dairy  hygiene  and  sanitation,  50-57,  6^ 

70,  533-544- 
Dairy  score  cards,  53-55- 
Dandelion  greens,  348. 
Dates,  337,  348,  567- 
Deficiency  diseases,  267. 
Denaturing  under  food  and  drugs  act, 

499. 
Derived  proteins,  15-16. 
Desaccharification  of  beet  molasses,  430. 
Deterioration  of  poultry  as  affected  by 

different  temperatures,  221-223. 


582 


INDEX 


Dextrin,  5,  8. 

Diet,  1-23,  74-81, 108-111, 139-141,  212- 
216,  246-247,  288-295,  34S-3S7. 
388-393,  440-444- 
Diffusion,  extraction  of  sugar  from  beets 

by,  422. 
Digestibility  of,  bacon  fat,  389. 

beans,  312-314. 

bread,  291-294,  299-301. 

butter,  390. 

buttermilk,  112. 

cheese,  109-110,  124. 

chicken,  245-246,  248. 

codfish,  245-246. 

cowpeas,  313. 

duck,  245-246. 

eggs,  139. 

fats,  389. 

fish,  245-246,  248. 

flour  products,  fine  and  coarse,  291- 
294,  299-301. 

fruit,  343- 

goose  fat,  389. 

kefir,  112. 

kumiss,  112. 

lard,  389. 

legumes,  312-314. 

meat,  204-205. 

milk,  76-77. 

mutton  fat,  389. 

nuts,  343. 

oleomargarine,  390. 

olive  oil,  389. 

peas,  313. 

potatoes,  320. 

poultry,  245-246,  248. 

salmon,  245-246. 

stearin,  389. 

vegetables,  312-314,  320,  358-360. 

wheat  bread,  coarse  and  fine,  291-294, 
299-301. 
Dill  seed,  452. 
Disaccharides,  5. 
Doughnuts,  287,  567. 
Dressed  weight  of  beef,  165. 

of  muti»n,  182. 

of  pork,  186. 
Dried  eggs,  155-158. 
Dried  meat,  167. 
Dried  milk,  117-118,  126-127. 
Duck,  245-246. 


Dyes,  regulations  governing  use  in  foods, 
41.  507-516,  518-520,  546. 

Edam  cheese,  88,  95,  105. 
Edestin,  13,  273,  279,  289. 
Eels,  227,  567. 
Eggplant,  325,  567. 
Eggs,  128-160,  567. 

candling  of,  142-144. 

cold  storage  of,  148-154. 

composition  of,  131-139,  567. 

constituents,  nature  of,  133-138,  159- 
160. 

drying  of,  154-158. 

fat,  nature  of,  133-134. 
influence  on  growth,  391. 

frozen,  154-155,  157-158. 

grading,  130,  142-144. 

marketing,  142-147. 

nutritive  value  of,  139-141. 

place  in  the  diet,  141. 

preservation  of,  141-143,  147-160. 

price  of,  149-151. 

production  of,  128-130. 

proteins  of,  134-136. 

spoilage,  151-154. 

trade  practices  in  industry,  141. 

weight  of,  136,  137. 

white  of,  132-136,  159. 

yolk  of,  132-136,  159. 
Emmental  cheese,  88,  95,  102,  105. 
Endive,  348. 
Entrainment,  410. 
Enzymes,  of  barley,  253. 

of  milk,  75. 
Erythrosin,  use  of,  in  food,  509. 
Essential  oils,  449-463,  473-475. 
Eucaine,  32,  495. 
Eugenol,  450,  452,  460. 
Evaporated  milk,  114-117,  126-127. 
Evaporation,  in  sugar  industry,  406-408, 

419. 
Evaporators,  407,  408. 
Examination  of  samples  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  38. 
Excelsin,  13,  344. 

Exportation  of  food,  regulations  govern- 
ing, 497. 
Extractives  of  meat,  168,  202,  204-206, 

217-219. 
Extracts,  flavoring,  458-463,  473-474- 


INDEX 


583 


Farina,  285,  567. 
Fats,  10-12,  366-396. 

amounts  digested,  389,  393. 

consumption  of,  392. 

digestibility  of,  204,  389,  390. 

fuel  value  of,  12,  390. 

globules  in  milk,  58. 

influence  on  growth,  391,  396. 

in  individual  articles  of  food,  see  under 
the  name  of  each. 

place  in  the  diet,  388-394. 

references  on,  23,  394-396. 

vegetable,  as  butter  substitutes,  382. 
Fatty  acids,  10-12,  376. 
Fennel,  452. 

Fermented  milks,  111-114,  125-126. 
Fig  bars,  287,  567. 
Figs,  335.  337,  348,  354,  S67- 
Filberts,  339,  567. 
Filled  cheese,  106. 
Filtration,  in  sugar  industry,  405,  418, 

419. 
Fish,    200-201,    225-237,    245-250,    561, 

564-575- 
Flank,  beef,  composition  and  cost,  170, 

173,  207-211. 
lamb  and  mutton,  182,  184. 
veal,  179,  180. 
Flavoring  extracts,  458-463,  473-474. 
Flounder,  227,  567. 
Flour,  274-280,  291-295,  299-302,  566, 

567    (see  also  under  Bread,  and 

the  names  of  different  grains). 
Food  adulteration,  see  Adulteration. 
Food  and  Drugs  Act,  28-44,  479-532. 
Food,  constituents  of,  1-23. 

functions  of,  1-23. 
Food  inspection  decisions,  37,  501-532. 
Food  legislation,  24-46. 
Food  materials,  definition,  3. 
Foods,  see  under  the  name  of  each. 
Foodstuffs,  4-21. 
Food    values,    see   under   the   dififerent 

articles  of  food. 
Fowl,  224,  568. 
Frogs'  legs,  229,  568. 
Frozen  beef,  165. 
Frozen  eggs,  154-158. 
Frozen  fish,  225,  250. 
Frozen  poultry,  223. 
Fructose,  4,  6,  432,  435. 


Fruit,  303,  329-358,  361-365. 
changes  in  ripening,  341-343- 
composition  of,  335-341,  347-349- 
digestibility  and  nutritive  value,  343- 

345- 
place  in  the  diet,  346-357. 
production  of,  329-334. 
references  to  literature  on,  358,  361- 
365- 
Fruitarians,  343. 

Fuel  value,  of  food  in  general,  i,  5,  9,  12, 
16-17,  21-23. 
of  individual  articles  of  food,  see  under 
each. 
Fuller's  earth  in  oil  refining,  387. 
Fiillmass,  412. 
Functions  of  food,  1-23. 

Galactan,  5,  8. 

Galactose,  4,  6. 

Game,  225. 

Gelatin,  198,  202,  206,  568. 

Gin,  469. 

Ginger,  452,  453,  568. 

crystallized,  568. 
Ginger  extract,  460. 
Ginger-snaps,  287,  568. 
Gliadin,  14,  272-273,  279,  289. 
Globulins,  13  (see  also  names  of  individual 

globulins) . 
Glucose,  4,  5,  255,  261-263,  433,  435.  442. 

445,  446. 
Glutamic  acid,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289, 

314,  344- 
Glutelins,  13,  289. 

Gluten,  272-273,  275,  279,  299-302. 
feed,  264. 
meal,  263. 
Glutenin,  14,  272,  273,  279. 
Glycerides,  see  Fats. 
Glycin,  13,  16,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289, 

314,  344- 
GlycocoU,  see  Glycin. 
Glycogen,  5,  8. 
Glycoproteins,  14. 
Goose,  224,  389,  568. 

eggs,  132. 
Gooseberries,  348. 
Gorgonzola  cheese,  88,  96,  102. 
Grades  of  milk,  69,  70. 
Graining  of  sugar,  409. 


584 


INDEX 


Grain  products,  251-302  {see  also  under 
the  individual  grains  and  mill 
products). 

Granulator,  420. 

Grape  butter,  568. 

Grapefruit,  348. 

Grape  juice,  348,  354,  568. 

Grapes,  335,  338,  348,  354,  568. 

Greens,  325,  568. 

Green  shade  (permitted  coal  tar  dye),  509. 

Growth,  16,  17,  21,  77-81,  84,  134,  140, 
28^291,  293-294,  391,  396. 

Gruyfere,  97. 

Guaranty,  under  food  and  drugs  act,  43, 
■526-528,  531-532- 

Guava,  348. 

Gumbo,  see  Okra. 

Haddock,  227,  236,  568. 

Hake,  227. 

Halibut,  227,  236,  245,  568. 

Ham,  186,  187,  189,  190,  203,  568,  569. 

Hardening  of  oils,  388. 

Headcheese,  188,  569. 

Hearings,  under  food  and  drugs  act,  39, 

482. 
Heart,  beef,  176. 

mutton,  185. 

pork,  189. 

veal,  181. 
Hematogen,  138. 
Hemoglobins,  15. 
Heroin,  32,  495- 
Herring,  227,  236,  569. 
Hexosans,  5. 
Hexoses,  4. 

Hickory  nuts,  339,  569. 
Histidin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314, 

344- 
Histones,  14. 
Hominy,  284,  569. 
Honey,  434,  43$,  569. 
Hordein,  14,  253,  289. 
Horseradish,  328,  348,  453. 
Huckleberries,  336,  348,  569. 
Hundred^flalorie  portions  of  foods,  table 

of,  561-575- 
Hydrogen  as  food  constituent,  2-3. 
Hydrogenation  of  oils,  388. 
Hygiene  of  the  dairy,  50-57,  65^-70,  533- 
544- 


Ice  cream,  46,  1 21-12 2,  127. 

Imported  foods,  44,  497,  498. 

Indigo  disulfoacid  (permitted  dye),  509. 

Infection  of  meat,  191,  192. 

Ingredients,  natural  poisonous  or  dele- 
terious, in  food,  485. 

Inosite,  18. 

Inspection,  see  Adulteration,  Law,  Meat, 
and  Milk. 

Intestinal  putrefaction,  351. 

Inulin,  5,  8. 

Invert  sugar,  6,  435. 

Iodine,  2,  75. 

Iron,  3,  20-21,  75,  79,  136,  137,  138,  204, 

-—  253,  347-349.  350,  561-575  {see 
also  Ash  constituents). 

Juices,  fruit  (general),  466  {see  also  Fruit), 
lemon,  569. 
orange,  571. 
raspberry,  573. 
strawberry,  573. 
sugar  beet,  421. 
sugar  cane,  401,  403. 

Kafir  com,  284. 
Kefir,  112,  114. 
Kidney,  beef,  177,  563. 

mutton,  185. 

pork,  189. 

veal,  181. 
Kohlrabi,  325. 
Kumiss,  112,  114,  569. 

Labels,  488-493,  503-507- 

Lactalbumin,  13,  72,  75. 

Lactation,  stage  of,  influence  on  com- 
position of  cows'  milk,  59. 

Lactic  acid,  9,  89,  101-102,  11 2-1 13,  114. 

Lactic  add  bacteria,  57,  89,  101,  112- 
114,  123-126. 

Lacto,  123,  127. 

Lactoglobulin,  75. 

Lactometer,  64,  65. 

Lactose,  s,  7,  76  {see  also  Milk  sugar, 
and  Milk,  composition  of). 

Lady  fingers,  287. 

Lamb,  182-185,  569. 

Lard,  187,  221, 380, 387-389,  394. 395,  569- 
rendering  from  material  "  passed  for 
sterilization,"  559-560. 


INDEX 


585 


Lard  substitutes,  387-388. 
Laurie  acid,  10,  376. 
Laurin,  75,  376. 

Law  governing  foods  and  drugs  generally, 
27-35.  479-532- 

meat  inspection,  192-194,  545-560. 

oleomargarine,  380. 

tea,  465. 
Laxative  effect,  of  fruits,  351-352. 

of  whole  wheat  bread,  292-293. 
Leavening  agents,  280-282. 
Lecithin,  18,  75,  133,  134. 
Lecithoproteins,  15. 
Leeks,  326,  348. 
Leg  of  lamb  or  mutton,  182, 183,  184,  185. 

of  veal,  179,  180. 
Legumelin,  13,  314. 
Legumes,  304-318. 
Legumin,  13,  314. 
Lemon  extract,  458,  466. 
Lemon  juice,  336,  569. 
Lemon,  oil  of,  460. 

Lemons,  330,  331,  336,  348,  354,  569. 
Lentils,  326,  348,  569. 
Lettuce,  326,  354,  569. 
Leucin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314, 

344- 
Leucosin,  13,  273,  279,  289. 
Lichi  nuts,  339. 
"  Light  green  S.  F.  Yellowish  "  (permitted 

dye),  509. 
Limburg  cheese,  88,  97,  103,  105. 
Limes,  348. 
Linoleic  acid,  10. 
Linolenic  acid,  1 1 . 
Lipins,  see  Fats  and  Lipoids. 
Lipochrome,  75. 
Lipoids,  22,  75,  391,  396. 
Liver,  177,  181,  185,  189,  203. 
Lobster,  238,  243,  244,  569. 
Loin,  beef,  170,  173,  207,  209-212. 

lamb  or  mutton,  182,  183,  184. 

pork,  186,  188. 

veal,  179,  180. 
Lungs,  177,  181,  185,  189. 
Lutein,  134. 

Lysin,  13,  17,  72,  77,  136,  202,  245,  289, 
314.  344- 

Macaroni,  285,  569. 
Macaroons,  287. 


Mace,  453. 
Macedoine,  328. 
Mackerel,  227,  237,  570. 
Magnesium  as  food  constituent,  general, 
2.    3,    19  (.see   also  under   Ash 
constituents). 
Maize,  251,  255-264,  296,  297  (see  also 
under  Com  and  Grain  products). 
Malt,  253,  296. 
Malt  liquor,  469. 
Maltose,  5,  7,  262. 
Mamey,  348. 
Mango,  348. 
Manioca,  439. 
Mannan,  5,  8. 
Mannose,  4,  6. 
Manufacturing  processes,  see  under  the 

different  articles  of  food. 
Maple  sirup,  439,  445,  446,  447. 
Maple  sugar,  439,  445,  446,  447. 
Margarine,  378-382. 
Marjoram,  454. 
Marjoram  extract,  462. 

oil  of,  462. 
Marmalade,  orange,  338,  570. 
Marrow,  177,  189. 
Masse  cuite,  412. 

Measure  of  food  in  package,  legal  re- 
quirements, 32,  528-531. 
Meat,  161-219,  561-575. 

ash  constituents,  203-204,  561-575. 

broths,  205-206. 

composition,  171-190,   199,  224,  561- 
575- 
of  fat-free  substance,  199-201. 

consumption,  213-216. 

cost,  207-212,  213-214. 

digestibility,  204. 

economy,  206-212,  213-214. 

extract,  197,  201,  202. 

hygiene,  191,  545-560. 

industry,  161-169,  191-194,  212-219. 

inspection,  44,  190-194,  545-560. 

iron  in,  204,  350. 

juice,  197. 

packing,  161-171,  212-219. 

place  in  the  diet,  212-216. 

poisoning,  191. 

proteins,  202,  204. 

second  grade,  sterilized,  560. 

standard,  194. 


586 


INDEX 


Meat  Inspection  Law,  545-552  (see  also 

Slaughter  houses). 
Meat  Inspection  Regulations,  552-560. 
Medical  examination  of  dairy  employees, 

69,  542-544- 
Melting  points  of  fats  in  relation  to  their 

digestibility,  389. 
Metaproteins,  15. 
Methods,  see  under  the  individual  articles 

of  food. 
Micrcorganisms  in  cheese  making,  loi- 

103. 
Mlk,  48-85,  533-544.  57°. 

adulteration  of,  62. 

bacteria  in,  66,  69,  70,  81-85,  539-540. 

certified,  56,  533-544- 

chemical  analysis  of,  65,  81-85. 

classification  and  grading  of,  69,  70. 

composition  of,  57-62,   71-75,   81-85, 
570. 

condensed,  114-117,  126,  127,  570. 

constituents,  71-75. 

economy  of,  79-80. 

fuel  value,  74,  76,  570. 

grade  A,  69. 

grade  B,  70. 

grade  C,  70. 

industry,  48-57,  62-71,  81-85. 

inspection,  46,  62-66,  81-85. 

nutritive  value,  74-81. 

physical  properties,  58,  64,  65. 

place  in  the  diet,  79-81. 

production  and  handling,  49-56. 

products,  86-123. 

references,  81-85. 

relation  to  growth,  78-81. 

specific  gravity,  64,  65. 

standards,  66-71,  539,  540. 

summary  of  constituents,  74. 

test  for  cleanliness,  65. 

transportation  of  certified,  537. 

value  in  growth,  78-81. 

variations  in  composition  and  proper- 
ties, 60-62,  81-85. 
Milk  chocolate,  438. 
Milk  house,  50. 
Milking,  51,  535- 
Milk  sugar,  7,  74,  75,  114. 
Mincemeat,  464. 

Misbranding,  26-28,  31-32,  40-41,  106, 
488-497. 


Mixed  baking  powders,  282. 

Mixed   dyes,   certification  of,   S13-516, 

518-520. 
Mixtures,  definition  under  food  and  drugs 

act,  493. 
Moisture  in  butter,  375. 

in  other  foods,  see  under  composition 

of  each. 
Molasses,  414,  426-432,  439,  570. 
Molds,  action  of,  in  cheese  ripening,  102- 

103. 
Monosaccharides,  definition,  4-5. 
Morphine,  32,  493,  494. 
Mullet,  228. 
Municipal  food  control,  44-46. 

milk  inspection,  63. 
Muscovado  sugar,  408. 
Mushrooms,  326,  354,  570. 
Muskellung,  228. 
Muskmelons,  336,  348,  354,  570. 
Mussels,  238,  240,  243. 
Mustard,  454-455. 
Mustard  oil,  455. 

Mutton,  182-185,  213,  219,  389,  571. 
Myristic  acid,  10,  376. 
Myristin,  75,  376. 

Name,    character   of,    regulation   under 

food  and  drugs  act,  490. 
distinctive,  definition   of,  imder   food 

and  drugs  act,  491. 
"Naphthol  yellow   S,"   use  in   coloring 

foods,  509. 
Narcotic  drugs,  status  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  31,  32,  493-496. 
Navel  cut  of  beef,  170,  173,  211. 
Neck,  of  beef,  174,  211. 

of  mutton  and  lamb,  182,  183,  184. 
of  veal,  179,  180. 
Nectarines,  336,  571. 
Neufchatel  cheese,  88,  98,  105. 
Neutralization  of  acid  produced  in  the 

body,  20,  22,  352-356. 
Neutral  lard,  380. 
Nickel,  use  of,  in  hardening  fatty  oils, 

388. 
Nitrogen  compounds,  classification  of,  i, 

12-17. 
(For  nitrogen  compounds  in  particular 

articles  of  food,  see  description 

of  each.) 


INDEX 


587 


Noodles,  285. 

North  system  of  sanitary  milk  produc- 
tion, 56. 
Notices   of   judgment    under   food  and 

drugs  act,  40. 
Nucleon,  73. 
Nucleoproteins,  14,  203. 
Nutmeg,  456. 
extract  of,  460. 
oil  of,  461. 
Nutrients,  in  genera!,  1-23. 

of  particular  articles  of  food,  see  under 
each. 
Nutritive  value  of  foods,  see  under  Diet 
and  under  compwasition  of  each 
article  or  type  of  food. 
Nuts,  303,  329,  334,  330-346,  358-360, 
382- 
composition  of,  339-341. 
digestibility    and   nutritive   value   of, 

343-345- 
place  in  the  diet,  345-346. 

^    Oatmeal,  265,  284,  297,  571. 

Oats,  251,  264-265,  297,  571. 

OflBcial  establishments  under  meat  in- 
spection law,  regulations  gov- 
erning, 552-560. 

Oils,  edible,  11,  366,  383-387,  389-391, 
394-3Q6. 
individual  oils,  see  under  the  name  of 

each. 
volatile  or  "essential,"  449-463,  473- 
475- 

Okra,  326,  328,  571. 

Oleic  acid,  10,  11,  376. 

Olein,  II,  75,  376. 

Oleomargarine,  220,  378-382,  388,  571. 

Oleo  oil,  378,  379. 

Olive  oil,  383-386,  388,  389- 

Olives,  329,  334,  349,  354,  383,  384,  571. 

Onions,  326,  349,  354,  571. 

Opium,  31,  32,  493,  494. 

Orange  extract,  461. 

"Orange  I,"  use  of,  for  coloring  food, 
509. 

Orange  juice,  571. 

Orange,  oil  of,  461. 

Oranges,  330,  331-332,  336,  349. 354.  S7i- 

Organic  constituents  of  food,  general,  i- 
17. 


"Original  unbroken  package,"  definition 
of,  under  food  and  drugs  act,  48a 
Osmotic  pressure,  21. 
Otto  of  roses,  461. 
Ovalbumin,  135,  136. 
Over-run  in  butter  making,  368. 
Ovomucin,  135. 
Ovomucoid,  135. 
Ovovitellin,  135,  136. 
Oxygen  as  food  constituent,  2,  3. 
Oxyprolin,  72,  202,  344. 
Oysters,  238-244,  571. 

Package,  definition  of  original,  480. 
Packing  houses,  see  Meat  industry  and 

Meat  inspection. 
Palmitic  acid,  10,  11,  376. 
Palmitin,  11,  75,  376. 
Palmaut  fat  as  butter  substitute,  383. 
Paper  from  sugar  cane,  425. 
Paprika,  349,  456. 
Parmesan  cheese,  88,  98,  105. 
Parsnips,  326,  354,  571. 
Pasteurization  of  milk  and  cream,  57,  69, 

70,  369- 
Pastry,  286,  287. 

Peaches,  336,  338,  343,  349,  354,  571,  . 
Peanut  butter,  345,  571. 

oil,  221. 
Peanuts,  329,  340,  345,  571. 
Pearled  barley,  252,  253. 
Pears,  330,  336,  338,  349,  354.  57 1- 
Peas,  304-318,  326,. 328,  349,  354,  S7i- 

canning  of,  305-312. 

composition  of,  308,  326,  328,  349. 

digestibility  of,  313. 

grading  of,  307. 

greened  with  copper,  315-318. 

proteins  of,  chemical  nature,  314. 

references,  358-360. 
Pea  soup,  464,  571. 
Pecans,  340,  571. 
Pectin,  343. 
Pemmican,  167. 
Penalties  for  violation  of  food  and  drugs 

act,  28,  29,  36. 
Pentosans,  5,  8,  258. 
Pentoses,  5. 

Pepper,  329,  456-458.  . 

Peppermint,  461. 

oil  of,  461. 


588 


INDEX 


Peppermint  extract,  461. 

Peptids,  16,  03,  197. 

Perch,  228,  571. 

Persimmons,  336,  349. 

Phaseolin,  13,  314. 

Phenylalanin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289, 

314,  344- 
Phosphatids,  18,  133,  138,  159,  297,  360. 
Phosphate  baking  powders,  282. 
Phosphates,   see   Ash   constituents   and 

Phosphorus. 
Phospholipines,    18,    133,    138    {see   also 

Phosphatids). 
Phosphoproteins,  15,  71,  135,  138. 
Phosphorized  fats,  18,  133,  138  {see  also 

Phosphatids). 
Phosphorized  proteins,  18  {see  also  Phos- 
phoproteins). 
•Phosphorus,  as  food  constituent,  general, 

2,  3,  IS,  18,  21. 
in  particular  articles  of  food,  see  ash 

constituents  of  each, 
in  standard  (loo-Calorie)  portions  of 

food,  562-575- 
Pickerel,  228. 
Pickles,  329. 
Pies,  287,  571.  572. 
Pignolias,  341. 
Pigs'  feet,  pickled,  189. 
Pilchard,  237. 
Pimento,  450. 

Pineapple,  336,  338,  349,  354,  572. 
Pineapple  cheese,  99,  105. 
Pine  nuts,  340,  572. 
Piniones,  341. 
Pinon,  341. 
Piperidine,  457. 
Piperine,  457. 
Pistachios,  341,  572. 
Place  of  various  foods  in  the  diet,  iee 

Diet. 
Pluins,  336,  349,  3S4.  572. 
Poisons,  restrictions  on  use  in  slaughter 

houses  under    meat  inspection 

law,  553. 
Polarization  of  sugar  cane  juice,  403. 
Polishing  nee,  influence  on  composition, 

266. 
Pollock,  228. 
Polypeptids,  16. 
Polysaccharids,  5. 


Pomegranates,  336. 

Ponceau  3  R,  use  in  coloring  foods,  509. 

Porgy,  228. 

Pork,  185-190,  213,  572. 

Pork  packing,  161,  163,  185. 

Porterhouse  steak,  172,  208,  211. 

Potassium  as  food  constituent,  general, 

3,  19,  20. 
in  particular  articles  or  types  of  food, 

see  ash  constituents  of  each. 
Potato  chips,  572. 
Potatoes,   319-323,   326-328,   349,   354, 

357,  572. 
Potatoes,  sweet,  319,  322-323,  328,  572. 
Potato  starch,  8,  322. 
Potential  acidity  or  alkalinity  in  food, 

352-356. 
Poultry,  220-225,  245-248. 
Poultry-killing,  46,  221,  247,  248. 
Powdered  milk,  117-118. 
Powdered  sugar,  439. 
Powdering  of  foods,  31,  485. 
Preservation  of  eggs,  141-143,  147-160. 
of  fish,  230-236. 
of  meat,  1 65-1 71. 
of  poultry,  221-223. 
{See  also   the   descriptive   paragraphs 

under  various  other  articles  of 

food.) 
Preservatives  in  food,  legal  status  of,  31, 

41,  42-43,  63,  486-487,  508. 
Preserved  fish,  230-237. 
Preserved   foods  generally,   see  descrip- 
tion and  composition  of    each 

article  or  type  of  food. 
Press-cake  from  sugar  manufacture,  426. 
Primary  protein  derivatives,  15. 
Principles  of  food  legislation,  24-28. 
Private  importations  of  food,  44. 
Process  butter,  377. 
Processing  canned  food,  168-169. 
Production   of   food,   see  description  of 

each  article  or  type  of  food. 
Prolamin  of  rye,  268,  289. 
Prolin,  13,  72,   136,   202,    245,  289,  314, 

344- 
Proof  stick,  410,  411,  419. 
Proportions  of  ingredients  required  to 

be    declared    under    food    and 

drugs  act,  method  of  stating, 

496,  504. 


INDEX 


589 


Prosecutions  under  the  food  and  drugs 

act,  39. 
Protamines,  14. 
Proteans,  15. 

Protein  content  estimation  of,  12,  273. 
of  individual  articles  or  types  of  food, 
see  description  of  each. 
Proteins,    as    food    constituents,    i,    3, 
12-17,  and  under  the  descrip- 
tion of  each  article  or  type  of 
food, 
behavior  in  nutrition,    16-17,    76-77, 

289-291. 
chemical  nature,  12-16,  71,  72,  93,  134- 
136,  201-203,  24s,  273,  289-291, 
314,  315.  344- 
classification,  13-16. 
elementary   composition,    3,    71,    135. 

273- 
energy  value,  17. 
fuel  value,  17. 
of  flesh  of  different  species  compared, 

245- 
of  grain  products  compared  with  other 

foods,  289-291. 
of  individual  articles  or  types  of  food, 

see  description  of  each. 
Proteoses,  15. 

Proximate  composition  defined,  3. 
Prunes,  333,  336,  349,  354,  572. 
Publication  of  findings  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  40,  483. 
Puddings,  287. 
Pulp,  sugar  beet,  425. 
Pulses,  304-318. 

Pumpkins,  327,  328,  349,  354,  572. 
Pure  food  law  (food  and  drugs  act),  28- 

44,  479-532- 
Purins,  202-203,  214. 
Purpose  of  food  inspection  decisions,  37, 

501. 
Putrefactive  bacteria,  351. 
Putrefactive  products,  214. 

Quantity  of  food  in  package,  statement 

required  under  food  and  drugs 

act,  32,  528. 
of  substances  required  to  be  declared 

when  present,  method  of  stating, 

496,  S04. 
Quince  juice,  349. 


Radishes,  327,  349,  354,  572. 

Raffinose,  5,  7. 

Raisins,  334,  337,  349,  354,  573. 

Raspberries,  337,  349,  354,  573. 

Raspberry  juice,  349,  573. 

Rat  poisons,  restrictions  on  use  in 
slaughter  houses,  553. 

Rat  viruses,  forbidden  in  slaughter 
houses  under  meat  inspection 
regulations,  553. 

"Red  dog"  flour,  276,  279. 

Red  dyes,  regulations  governing  use  in 
foods,  509-516. 

References  to  literature,  see  lists  at  end 
of  each  chapter. 

Refining  of  foods,  legal  status  of  sub- 
stances adding  during,  485. 
of  sugar,  416-420. 

Refrigeration,  see  Cold  storage  and  Pres- 
ervation of  poultry  at  different 
temperatures, 
effect  on  rate  of  deterioration,  221. 

Regulations  for  enforcement  of  food  and 
drugs  act,  29,  36,  479-500. 
of  meat  inspection  law,  193,  552-560. 

Rendering  of  lard  and  tallow,  under  meat 
inspection  regulations,  559-560. 
of  neutral  lard,  380. 

Renovated  butter,  377. 

Retail  cuts  of  beef,  relative  economy  of, 
206-212. 

Rhubarb,  327,  349,  354,  573- 

Ribs,  of  beef,  170,  174,  207-212. 
of  pork,  186. 
of  veal,  179,  181. 

Rice,  251,  266-267,  284,  297-299,  356, 
573- 

Ripening,  of  cheese,  92-93,  101-103. 
of  cream  for  butter  making,  367. 
of  fruit,  341-343- 
of  milk  for  cheese  making,  89. 

Roe,  shad,  228,  573. 

Rolled  oats,  265. 

Rolls,  286,  574. 

Roquefort  cheese,  99,  102,  105. 

Rose  extract,  461. 

Round,  beef,  170,  175,  207-211. 

Rules  and  regulations  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  food  and  drugs  act, 
29.  36,  479-500. 

Rum,  428,  429,  469. . 


590 


INDEX 


Rump,  beef,  170,  175,  207-211. 

veal,  181. 
Rutabagas,  327,  340,  354,  573. 
Rye,  251,  268,  289. 

Sabine  pine  nuts,  341 . 
Saccharin,    decisions    regarding    use    in 
foods,  479,  487,  520,  522,  525. 
Saffron,  458. 
Sage,  458. 
Salad,  464. 

oil,  use  of  term,  385. 

oils,  383-387- 
Salmon,  228,  232,  233,  237,  573. 

canning  industry,  232. 
regulation  of,  233. 
Salsify,  349. 
Salt,  18,  169,  371,  374,  448-449. 

analysis  of  dairy  salt,  371. 

standard  of  purity  for  table  salt,  449. 
Salted  duck  eggs,  132. 
Salting  butter,  371. 
Saltpeter,  in  canned  beef,  167. 

in  meats  generally,  169,  171. 
Salts  of  foods,  see  Ash  constituents. 
Salts  of  tin  in  foods,  food  inspection  de- 
cision, 517. 
Samples,  collection  of,  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  38,  480. 
Sandwiches,  464. 
Sanitary  code  of  New  York  city,  45. 

of  New  York  State,  45. 
Sanitary  condition  of  slaughter  houses 
under  meat   inspection  regula- 
tions, 552-557- 
Sanitation  in  the  milk  industry,  52-56, 
81-85,  533-544- 

of  slaughter  houses,  552-557. 
Sapato,  349. 

Sardines,  234-236,  237,  573. 
Sauce  in  canned  foods,  524. 
Sauerkraut,  327. 
Sausage,  46,  i88,  572,  573. 
Savory,  458. 

oil  of,  461. 
Savory  exfract,  461. 
Scallops,  238,  243,  24s,  573. 
Schlempe,  430,  431. 
Scope  of  food  and  drugs  act,  35. 

of  food  inspection  decisions,  501. 
Score  card,  bread,  280. 


Score  card,  cheese,  104. 

milk  production,  53-55,  69,  70. 
Secondary  protein  derivatives,  15. 
Second  break  flour,  275. 
Second  clear  grade  flour,  276,  277. 
Second-hand    containers  for  meat    and 
meat     products,     requirements 
governing  use  of    under    meat 
inspection  regulations,  556. 
Second  quaUty  meat  (sterilized),  560. 
Sediment  test,  65. 
Separators,  119. 

Serin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  289,  314. 
Sesame  oil,  11,  386. 
Shad,  228,  573. 

roe,  228,  573. 
Shank,  beef,  170,  175,  207-212. 

veal,  179,  181. 
Sheepshead  (fish),  228. 
Shellfish,  238-247,  248-250. 

bacterial  contamination  of,  240,  241. 

composition  of,  243,  244. 

industry,  238-242. 

place  in  the  diet,  247. 
Shoulder,  beef,  170,  175,  207-212. 

lamb  and  mutton,  181,  183,  184. 

pork,  185,  187,  188. 

veal,  179,  181. 
Shredded  wheat,  285,  573. 
Shrimp,  238,  244,  573. 
Simple  proteins,  13. 
Sinalbin,  455. 
Sinigrin,  455. 
Sirloin,  172,  207-212. 
Sirup,  com,  262,  433. 

glucose,  262,  263,  433. 

in  canned  foods,  524. 

maple,  433. 

mixed,  433. 

open  kettle,  cane,  434. 

refiner's,  419,  433. 
Skimmed  milk,  1 18-120,  368. 

cheese,  106. 
Skimming  of  milk,  62,  118-120,  368. 
Slaughter  houses,  44,  46,  161-165,  191- 
194.  545-560. 

general  methods,  164,  182,  185,  191, 
192. 

under  meat  inspection  regulations,  ac- 
cumulation of  condemned  ma- 
terial forbidden,  559. 


INDEX 


591 


Slaughter  houses,  under  meat  inspection 

regulations,     accumulation     of 

material    in    which    iiies    may 

breed  forbidden,  556-557. 

ante-mortem  inspection  of  animals, 

SS7- 
equipment  required,  552-557. 
lavatories  required  in,  554. 
methods,  552-560. 
plans  and  specifications,  552. 
post-mortem  inspection  of  animals, 

558. 
precautions  against  flies,  mice,  etc., 

553- 
requirements  as  to  sanitation,  552- 

557- 
as  to  water  supply,  553. 
restrictions  on  admission  of  dogs, 

553-554- 
on  use  of  rat  poisons,  553. 
sanitation  of,  552-557. 
specifications  for,  552-557. 
utensils,  554-556. 
Slicing  sugar  beets  for  diffusion  process, 

421. 
Smelt,  22g,  573. 

Smoke  as  meat  preservative,  169. 
Soaked  curd  cheese,  107. 
Sodium,  see  Ash  constituents. 
Sodium  benzoate  as  food  preservative, 
status  under  food  and  drugs  act, 
42,  43,  479,  487. 
Sodium  chloride,  see  Salt. 
Soft  drinks,  46. 

Solids-not-fat  in  milk,  59,  61,  65,  66-68. 
Soup  bones,  208,  209,  211. 
Soup  liquor,  168. 
Soup  stock,  176. 

Soups,  composition  and  loo-Calorie  por- 
tions  of   diflerent   kinds,    463- 
464.  565,  571,  575- 
Spaghetti,  285. 
Spanish  mackerel,  229. 
Spearmint,  461. 

oil  of,  462. 
Spearmint  extract,  461.         , 
Specifications  for  production  and  handling 
of  certified  milk,  533-544. 
of  other  grades  of  milk,  69-70. 
for  sanitation  of  slaughter  houses  under 
meat  inspection  law,  552-557. 


Spices,  449-463.  473-474- 

Spinach,  327,  349,  354,  573. 

Spring  wheat,  269. 

Squash,  327,  328,  349,  573. 

Stables  for  milch  cows,  50,  54,  533-534. 

Staining  of  foods,  31,  41,  485  {see  also 

Color). 
Standards   of    composition   and    purity, 
general,  38-39-  479-493- 

for  allspice,  450. 

for  bone  extract,  197. 

for  buckwheat  flour,  254. 

for  butter,  376. 

process  or  renovated,  377. 

for  cheese,  107-108. 

for  chocolate,  437. 

for  cinnamon  extract,  459-460. 

for  clove  extract,  460. 

for  cloves,  452. 

for  cocoa,  437. 

for  condensed  milk,  116. 

for  corn  meal,  256. 

for  cream,  120,  121. 

for  essential  oils,  459-463. 

for  flavoring  extracts,  459-463. 

for  gelatin,  198. 

for  ginger,  453. 

for  ice  cream,  122. 

for  lemon  extract,  460. 

for  mace,  454. 

for  maple  sirup,  433-434. 

for  meat,  194. 

for  meat  extract,  197. 

for  meat  juice,  197. 

for  milk,  66-71. 
condensed  and  evaporated,  116. 

for  molasses,  432. 

for  mustard,  455. 

for  nutmeg,  456. 

for  olive  oil,  385. 

for  orange  extract,  461. 

for  pepper,  457. 

for -peptone,  197. 

for  process  butter,  377. 

for  refiner's  sirup,  433. 

for  salt,  449. 

for  sausage,  195. 

for  sirup,  433. 

for  tea,  465. 

for  tonka  extract,  462. 

for  vanilla  extract,  462. 


592 


INDEX 


Standards  of  composition  and  purity  for 
vinegars,  470-473. 

for  wines,  467-468. 
Star  anise  extract,  462. 
Starch,  5,  7,  8,  250-263,  439,  566. 
State  food  control,  44-46. 
Steak,  beef,  173,  177,  194,  207-212,  563. 

cooked,  177. 

Hamburg,  bacteria  in,  194. 

porterhouse,  173,  207-212,  563. 

round,  173,  177,  207-212,  563. 

sirloin,  173,  177,  207-212. 

tenderloin,  173,  177. 
Stearic  acid,  10,  11,  376.    g 
Stearin,  11,  75,  376,  389. 
".Stearine,"  cottonseed,  382. 
Steep  water  in  corn  starch  manufacture, 

263,  264. 
Sterilization  of  flesh  of  animals  showing 

localized  disease,  560. 
Sterilized  meat,  560. 
Stilton  cheese,  88,  100,  102,  105. 
Storing  butter,  373,  396. 
Straight  grade  flour,  276,  277. 
Strawberries,  329,  337,  338,  349,  573. 
Strawberry  juice,  573. 
Streptococci  in  eggs,  158. 
Structure  of  wheat  kernel,  270-271. 
Sturgeon,  229,  237,  247,  573. 
Substances  required  to  be  named  when 
present  in  drugs  or  foods,  32, 
493-496. 
Substitution,  regulation  under  food  and 

drugs  act,  492. 
Succotash,  328. 
Succinic  acid,  fuel  value  of,  9. 
Sucrose,  5,  6,  397  {see  also  Sugar). 
Suet,  177,  221. 
Sugar,  I,  4-7,  397-447,  573- 

composition,  397,  439. 

concrete,  406. 

"confectioner's,"  420. 

consumption  of,  423,  424,  441. 

digestion  of,  443. 

extent  of  production  and  use,  423-424. 

indastry,  397-431,  444-447- 
by-products  of,  424-431. 

manufacture  of,  from  beets,  420-422. 
from  cane,  397-416.^ 
from  maple  sap,  397,  434. 
from  palm,  397. 


Sugar,  muscovado,  408. 

Sugar  production,  statistics,  423,  424. 

Sugar  refining,  416-420. 

Sugars,  I,  4-7,  261-263,  397-447- 
place  in  the  diet,  440-444. 

Sulphites  as  meat  preservative,  169,  171. 

Sulphur  as  natural  constituent  of  food, 
see  Ash  constituents  and  Pro- 
teins. 

Sulphur  dioxide  as  food  preservative,  42, 
43,  508. 

Sulphurous  acid,  see  Sulphur  dioxide. 

Sweet  basil  extract,  462. 

Sweetbreads,  177,  203. 

Sweetened  condensed  milk,  115,  116. 

Sweet  potatoes,  319,  327,  328,  349,  354, 
572. 

Swine,  raising,  161,  163. 
slaughtering,  185-187,  545. 

Tallow,  rendering  from  material  "passed 
for  sterilization  "  under  the  meat 
inspection  law,  559. 

See  also  Beef  and  Mutton. 
Tamarinds,  349. 
Tapioca,  439,  574. 
Tartaric  acid,  fuel  value,  9. 

in  baking  powder,  281. 
Tea,  465. 

Terrapin,  243,  574. 
Test  rooms  for  canned  foods,  169. 
Theine,  465. 
Theobroma  cacao,  436. 
Theobromine,  466. 
Thyme,  458. 

extract,  462. 

oil  of,  462. 
Tin,  salts  of,  in  food,  249,  517. 
Tomatoes,  32*^  327,  328,  349,  354,  524, 
52s.  574- 

canned,  323,  328,  524,  525,  574. 
Tomcod,  229. 
Tongue,  beef,  177. 

lamb,  185,  569. 

mutton,  canned,  185. 

pigs,  pickl«d,  189. 
Tonka  bean,  462. 

extract,  462. 
Transportation  of  certified  milk,  537. 
Tripe,  162,  178,  574. 
Trisaccharide,  5. 


INDEX 


593 


Trout,  229,  574. 

Tryptophan,  13,  16,  72,  77,  136,  202,  245, 

289,  314,  344- 
Tuberculin  testing  of  milch  cows,  50,  69, 

538. 
Tunney,  237. 
Turbot,  229. 
Turkey,  224,  574. 

eggs,  132. 
Turnips,  327,  349,  354,  574. 
Turtle,  243,  574. 

eggs,  132. 
Tyrosin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314, 

344- 

Ultimate  composition,  definition  of,  3. 
Unhulled  rice,  266. 
Unsaturated  fatty  acids,  10. 
Uric  acid,  225. 
Urine,  acidity  of,  355,  356. 
Utensils,  in  milk  industry,  51,  537. 
in  slaughter  houses  under  meat  inspec- 
tion law,  554-  556. 

Vacuum,  evaporation,  408-409. 

pans,  409,  410. 
Valin,  13,  72,  136,  202,  245,  289,  314,  344. 
Vanilla  bean,  463. 

extract,  458,  462. 

wafers,  574. 
Vanillin,  458. 
Veal,  178-181,  203,  213,  574. 

"bob,"  178. 

composition  of,  179-180,  574-575. 

consumption  of,  213. 

cuts  of,  170. 

digestibility  of,  178,  179. 
Vegetables,  303-329,  346-360,  562-575- 

classification  of,  303,  304. 

composition  of,  324-329,  347-349. 

digestiliility  of,  312-314,  320. 

greened  with  copper,  report  on,  315- 
318. 

nutritive  value  and  place  in  the  diet, 
314,  315-  346-357- 

references  to  literature,  358-360. 
Vermicelli,  285. 

Veterinary  inspection,  in  city  food  con- 
trol, 46. 

in  milk  industry,  50,  54,  69,  70,  538- 
539. 

2Q 


Veterinary      inspection      in      slaughter 
houses,  191. 
under  meat  inspection  law,  545-560. 

Vicilin,  314.  " 

Vignin,  13,  314. 

Vinegar,  169,  470^473,  507. 

Virgin  oil,  385. 

Viruses,  forbidden  in  slaughter  houses 
under  meat  inspection  regula- 
tions, 553. 

Vitamines,  22,  75,  199,  267,  356. 

Wafers,  287,  574. 

Walnuts,  334,  340,  341,  575. 

Washing  of  sugar  in  refining,  417. 

Water,  as  constituent  of  foods  in  general, 
I,  2. 
of   individual    articles  or   types  of 
food,  see  description  of  each, 
in  canned  foods,  food  inspection  de- 
cision on,  524. 

Watercress,  349. 

Watering  of  milk,  62. 

Watermelons,  337,  349,  354,  575. 

Water  supply  for  farms  producing  cer- 
tified milk,  537. 
for  slaughter  houses  under  meat  in- 
spection law,  553. 

Weakfish,  229,  575. 

Weight  of  food  in  package,  regulation 
regarding,  528-531. 

Wheat,  251,  268-274,  299-302  {see  also 
Bread  and  Flour). 

Wheat   products,    composition   of,    277, 
278,  279,  285-287,  573,  575. 
nutritive  value  of,  288-295. 

Wheat  proteins,  272-274,  279,  289-292. 

Whey,  91,  575- 

Whisky,  469. 

White  fish,  229,  575. 

White  of  egg,  see  Egg. 

Wholesale  cuts  of  meat,  170,  179,  182, 
186,  207. 
(For  composition  see  under  each  kind 
of  meat.) 

Wines,  466-468. 

Wine  vinegar,  470,  473. 

Wintergreen,  extract,  463. 
oil  of,  463. 

Winter  oil,  388. 

Winter  wheat,  269. 


594 


INDEX 


Wood  smoke,  permitted  as  food  preserv- 
ative, 507. 
Working  of  butter,  372. 

Xylan,  s,  8. 
Xylose,  5,  6. 

Yams,  iig,  333. 


Yeast,  280-281,  464. 

Yeast  extracts,  ig8. 

Yellow  shade,  "permitted"  dye,  509. 

Yoghurt,  1 1 2-1 14,  125-126. 

Yolk  of  egg,  see  Egg. 

Zein,  14,  257,  280-290. 
Zwieback,  287,  575. 


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By   henry   C.   SHERMAN,  Ph.D. 

Professor  in  Columbia  University 

Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition 

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The  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  present  the  principles  of 
the  chemistry  of  food  and  nutrition  with  special  reference  to 
the  food  requirements  of  man  and  the  considerations  which 
should  underlie  our  judgment  of  the  nutritive  values  of  food. 
The  food  is  here  considered  chiefly  in  its  nutritive  relations. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  more  detailed  description  of  individual 
foods  and  the  chemical  and  legal  control  of  the  food  indus- 
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and  validity  of  the  evidence  on  which  our  present  beliefs 
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against  theories  which,  while  now  outgrown,  are  still  some* 
times  encountered. 

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Methods  of  Organic  Analysis 

By  henry  C.  SHERMAN,  Ph.D. 
Professor  of  Food  Chemistry  in  Columbia  University,  Author  of  "  Chem- 
istry of  Food  and  Nutrition  " 

Second  Edition  Rewritten  and  Enlarged 

Illustrated,  Cloth,  8vo,  $2.40 

PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

In  rewriting  this  work  after  six  years  of  constant  use  in  the  classroom 
and  laboratory,  the  author  has  endeavored  to  keep  in  mind  the  needs 
both  of  students  and  of  practising  chemists.  Methods  which  are  com- 
monly used  as  exercises  for  beginners  (such,  for  example,  as  the  deter- 
mination of  alcohol  by  the  distillation  method)  are  fully  described  with 
detailed  explanatory  and  precautionary  notes,  while  those  methods  which 
are  apt  to  be  used  only  by  advanced  students  or  professional  chemists  are 
given  more  concisely.  At  the  end  of  each  chapter  will  be  found,  first  a 
list  of  reference  books  arranged  alphabetically  by  authors,  and  then  a 
chronological  list  of  journal  articles,  bulletins,  etc.,  particularly  of  the 
last  few  years.  The  abbreviations  are  those  used  by  the  American  Chemi- 
cal Society  in  the  publication  of  Chemical  Abstracts. 

The  scope  of  the  work  has  been  somewhat  extended,  the  new  matter 
including  a  chapter  on  solid  and  liquid  fuels,  and  sections  on  industrial 
alcohol,  dr3nng  oils,  crude  petroleum,  the  new  international  methods  of 
glycerin  analysis,  and  quantitative  methods  for  the  testing  of  enzymes. 
The  discussions  of  aldehydes,  sugars,  proteins,  and  food  preservatives 
are  also  much  fuller  than  in  the  first  edition. 

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recent  advances  and  certain  changes  of  arrangement  which  have  been 
found  advantageous  from  the  standpoint  of  teaching,  make  the  present 
edition  practically  a  new  work. 

The  text  and  references  are  designed  to  cover,  along  with  the  direc- 
tions for  laboratory  work,  so  much  at  least  of  the  technology  of  the 
various  topics  considered  as  is  involved  in  a  proper  appreciation  of  the 
purposes  of  the  analysis  and  the  significance  of  the  analytical  results. 


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A  Laboratory  Hand-book  for  Dietetics 

By  MARY  SWARTZ   ROSE,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor,  Department  of  Nutrition,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

Cloth,  8vo,  %i.io 

Investigations  into  the  quantitative  requirements  of  the  human  body  have  progressed  sa 
far  as  to  make  dietetics  to  a  certain  extent  an  exact  science,  and  to  emphasize  the  importance 
of  a  quantitative  study  of  food  materials.  This  little  book  explains  the  problems  involved  in 
the  calculation  of  food  values  and  food  requirements,  and  the  construction  of  dietaries,  and 
furnishes  reference  tables  which  will  minimize  the  labor  involved  in  such  work  without  limiting 
dietary  study  to  a  few  food  materials 

Only  brief  statements  of  the  conditions  affecting  food  requirements  have  been  made,  the 
reader  being  referred  to  general  textbooks  on  the  subject  of  nutrition  for  fuller  information, 
but  such  data  have  been  included  as  seem  most  useful  in  determining  the  amount  of  food  for 
any  normal  individual  under  varying  conditions  of  age  and  activity. 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Part  I 

Food  Values  and  Food  Requirements. 

The  Composition  of  Food  Materials. 
The  Functions  of  Food. 

Food  as  a  Source  of  Energy. 
Food  as  Building  Material. 
Food  in  the  Regulation  of  Body  Processes. 
Food  Requirement. 

The  Energy  Requirement  of  Normal  Adults. 
The  Energy  Requirement  of  Children. 
The  Energy  Requirement  of  the  Aged. 
The  Protein  Requirement. 
The  Fat  and  Carbohydrate  Requirement. 
The  Ash  Requirement. 

Part  II 
Problems  in  Dietary  Calculations. 

Studies  in  Weight,  Measure,  and  Cost  of  Some  Common  Food  Materials. 

Relation  between  Percentage  Composition  and  Weight. 

Calulation  of  the  Fuel  Value  of  a  Single  Food  Material. 

Calculation  of  the  Weight  of  a  Standard  or  loo-Calorie  Portion. 

Food  Value  of  a  Combination  of  Food  Materials. 

Distribution  of  Foodstuffs  in  a  Standard  Portion  of  a  Single  Food  Material. 

Calculation  of  a  Standard  Portion  of  a  Combination  of  Food  Materials. 

Analysis  of  a  Recipe. 

Modification  of  Cow's  Milk  to  a  Required  Formula. 

Calculation  of  the  Percentage  Composition  of  a  Food  Mixture. 

The  Calculation  of  a  Complete  Dietary. 

Scoring  of  the  Dietary. 

Reference  Tables. 

Refuse  in  Food  Materials. 

Conversion  Tables  —  Grams  to  Ounces. 

Conversion  Tables  —  Ounces  to  Grams. 

Conversion  Tables  —  Pounds  to  Grams. 

Food  Values  in  Terms  of  Standard  Units  of  Weight. 

Ash  Constituents  in  Percentages  of  the  Exlible  Portion. 

Ash  Constituents  in  Standard  or  loo-Calorie  Portions. 

Appendix 
The  Equipment  of  a  Dietetics  Laboratory. 


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